HW 19

1. Death Tolls:

• Russia: over 20 million
  
• Poland: 6 million
  
• Germany: 4.2 million
  
• Great Britain: 388,000
  
• China: 2.2 million
  
• Japan: 2 million
  
• France: 600,000
  
• USA: 406,000

2. The USA benefited greatly from the war in terms of economy, since it provided the other Allies with supplies. This helped it become one of the world's new superpowers. Meanwhile, Britain was left with over £3000 million of debt.

3. Many millions of people were forced out of their homes after the war, particularly in Eastern Europe, where the USSR took over German-controlled areas. There was also a large amount of urban redevelopment, as cities that were destroyed in the war had to be rebuilt.

4. The United Nations was formed with the goal of maintaining world peace, and Russia and the United States became competing superpowers.

Why did the Allies win WWII? (Continued)

War Strategies in WWII

United States, Great Britain, Canada, New Zealand, Australia

• Defeat Germany first
• At the same time, the US will fight Japan in the Pacific
• Give aid to USSR to help against the Germans in the East (some debate on how much this helped)
  
• Attack through North Africa and move up through Italy
• US/GB launch an invasion into France, opening a second front
• Weakening Germany through bombing
• Securing N. Atlantic
  

Italy, Germany

• Germany conquers Europe + invades Great Britain
• Germany tries to make Great Britain surrender
• German army hopes to defeat USSR by Fall 1941 and begin colonizing it
• Italy and Germany try to go through North Africa to take the Middle East
• Germany tried to secure oil in the Caucusus Mountains

Japan

• Japan wanted to gain control of SE Asia
• Japan tried to avoid fighting both US and GB at the same time
• Preemptive strike in Hawaii
• Get resources in the Pacific
  

USSR

• Scorched Earth tactics
• Move the factories to safety
• Build up weapons
• Hold off until winter, counterattack

Turning Points

• Stalingrad (USSR vs. Germany)
  
• El Alamein (GB vs. Germany)
  
• Midway (US vs. Japan- Navy, intelligence)
  
• Battle of the Atlantic (US/GB vs. Germany- U-boats, Convoys)
  
• Kursk (Russia vs. Germany- Tanks)
  
• D-Day (US/GB vs. Germany- Largest amphibious assault in history- 9,500 planes, 4,600 ships, 176,000 soldiers)
  

Use of tanks, naval power and air power all changed dramatically since WWI and were all very important factors in the Allied victory in WWII.

HW 18

1. The Allies were able to gain a naval advantage over Japan by breaking Japanese codes, which allowed the Allies to be prepared for battles like the one at Midway. As a result, the Allies won the battle of Midway, which was a turning point in the war.
   
2. Like in the Western front, there was a large amount of aerial bombing in the East. Much of this bombing targeted civilian and industrial areas. The firebombing of various Japanese cities caused terrible damage and left many civilians dead.
   
3. A third reason is the use of the atomic bomb on Japan. The war was ended after the US dropped two atomic bombs targeting the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It is often argued that this method of winning the war was immoral and unnecessary, with some people saying that it was a war crime.
   

Why did the Allies win WWII?

Battle of North Atlantic (1940-1943, Allies win)
Air:

• Air cover for convoys
• Planes could sink submarines
• "Huff Duff"

Sea:

• Use of convoys
• Breaking the "Enigma" code
  

El Alamein/Operation Torch (1942, Allies win)
Air:

• British air bases in Egypt and Palestine
• Sank German supply ships
  

Land:

• Tank warfare
• Helped set up invasion of Italy
• Saved Middle East oil from Germans
  

Sea:

• Saved Suez Canal from Germans

Battle of Stalingrad (1942, Allies win)
Air:

• German effort to supply by air fails
  

Land:

• Very close house-to-house, room-to-room fighting
• Tank battle (USSR tanks encrcle the Germans)
  

Battle of the Coral Sea/Midway/Guadalcanal (1942, Allies win)
Air:

• Use of aircraft carriers
  

Land:

• Fighting took place on the islands
  

Sea:

• US breaks Japanese secret codes
• Allies fought to take back Pacific islands
  

HW 17

1. Germany was fighting in too many different areas at once. Because it was not able to effectively focus its efforts on one front, it was forced to divide its power and fight in various places, including Italy, France, Russia, and Egypt.
2. Declaring war on America seems to have been a terrible mistake for Germany. Once America entered the war, it assisted Britain in the Battle of the Atlantic and the invasions of France and Italy.
   
3. The air war was another reason for Germany's defeat in World War II. Allied bombing had a great effect on Germany's ability to fight the war, causing civilian casualties, damaging Germany's trade and production, and eliminating its resources.
   

HW 16

A.

• Total war: large scale war and destruction, often targeting civilians as well as military forces
  
• Forced labor: People from German-occupied parts of Europe were used by the Germans for slave labor.
  
• Concentration camp: "Enemies of the state" in Germany were forced to live in terrible conditions in concentration camps.
  
• "The final solution": the Nazis' decision to exterminate all the Jews in Europe
  
• Ghettoes: sections of towns in which Jews were forced to live
  
• Extermination camps: Camps designed for the mass murder of Jews
  
• Partisans: armed resistance groups that fought against the Axis
  
• Guerrilla warfare: methods used by resistance groups to make Axis occupation difficult

B.

1. Chinese families in Sunkiang would have been forced to leave their homes because of the Japanese invasion.
   
2. French families would have had to flee from the Germans or live under their rule. They also had the option of participating in the Resistance.
   
3. A soviet aircraft factory worker would have been required to do much more work after the start of the war, building aircraft and bombs.
4. A Jewish person in Germany would have been put in a concentration camp by the Nazis and probably would have been killed as a part of the "final solution."
5. The son of a captured Yugoslav partisan would have likely been taken from his home and placed in a labor camp or children's camp.
   

HW 15

1. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought America into World War II and gave Japan control of the Pacific. Also, when America declared war on Japan, Germany declared war on America.
2. Midway Island saw a major naval battle between America and Japan in 1942. This battle exhibited a number of naval tactics as well as the use of aircraft carriers. It also showed how codes could be broken and used against those who created them. The American victory resulted in the destruction of much of Japan's navy, allowing the Allies to take back the Pacific.
3. The Allied victory at El Alamein in 1942 kept Germany out of Egypt and the Suez Canal, pushing it out of North Africa. It also prevented the Axis forces in Ukraine and the Middle East from joining, strengthening the grip of the Allies in that area.
4. The Russian victory at Stalingrad (1942-1943) stopped Germany's plans for the rest of its invasion of Russia and destroyed much of the Nazis' ideology, greatly boosting Russian morale, encouraging them to take back more territory, such as the city of Leningrad.
5. If Britain had continued to lose ships at such a high rate due to U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic (1942-1943), it may not have been able to stay in the war.
6. The Allied bombing of German and Japanese cities caused large numbers of civilian casualties and made production difficult for the Axis. It also drew German aircraft away from the East, making it easier for Russia to invade Germany.

A.

• Second front: The war in the east, as opposed to the war in Europe.
• Area bombing: The tactic of bombing everything in a target area.
• The Allies: Countries that opposed the Axis. Included Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Australia, and Canada.
• Operation Torch: The British and American invasion of Morocco and Algeria.

B.

• Similar: It was likely hot and uncomfortable in both places. Both battles were Allied attacks on the Axis forces. Both battles involved brutal fighting.
  
• Different: El Alamein was in Egypt, where it was probably dry and flat, while New Guinea was probably humid and mountainous. Fighting in New Guinea probably involved a lot of guerrilla warfare, while the Battle of El Alamein was largely based around tanks.

Class Notes 12/10

Strategies/Practices

3 Air

• Strategic/Area Bombing
• Tactical Bombing
• Formations

2 Naval

• U-boat packs
• Aircraft Carriers
  

1 Question

• What was the strategic value of battleships?

Pearl Harbor

• Dec. 7th 1941
• Preemptive attack surprises the US Navy
  
• 4 Aircraft Carriers were preserved
• Brings US into the war
• Germany declares war on the US
• War becomes global

Battle of the Atlantic

• 1940-1943
• German Submarines versus American + British Navy + Air Force
• German Strategy: starve Britain into submission
• German Tactic: use U-boats
• Convoy systems
  

Comparing and Contrasting Sources

Compare/Contrast the views expressed by Bob Stewart and Robert Mcnamara on Aerial bombing during World War II.

There were a number of similarities between the views of Captain Bob Stewart and former US Defense Secretary Robert Mcnamara on the practice of aerial bombing in World War II. Both people were greatly involved in the fighting of World War II, and they seemed to agree afterward that what they were doing was immoral. They both pointed out that, although there were some military targets designated for aerial bombing missions, those targets were surrounded by areas occupied by civilians, which resulted in large numbers of civilian deaths. There seemed to be a general agreement that this type of area bombing could easily be declared a war crime. Similarly, both men seemed to think that the use of the atomic bomb on Japan was unnecessary, with Captain Stewart even claiming that it was the true beginning of the Cold War. Mcnamara and Stewart both seem to be strictly anti-war. The Fog of War, a documentary film showing some of Mcnamara's thoughts on World War II, presented the amount of destruction due to firebombing in Japan in a shocking way to convey the negative effects of war.

At the same time, there are many differences between the views expressed by the two sources. Mcnamara seems to be convinced that aerial bombing during World War II was very effective and that it was one of the most important practices of the war. Captain Stewart, on the other hand, argued that bombing was not particularly effective and was largely unnecessary. This disagreement may have been caused by the different roles the two men had in fighting the war; Mcnamara did not do any direct fighting but had a more strategic perspective of World War II, while Captain Stewart was a bomber pilot who was more closely involved in the fighting. Mcnamara likely had a larger scale view of the war and thought that the bombing served its purpose on that scale. Captain Stewart, being the one actually doing the bombing, may not have thought that what he was doing was enough to win the war. In addition to this, Mcnamara's view of the war was largely based on the Pacific front, while Captain Stewart only served against Germany.

Primary Source OPVL Excercise

1. Source A: Captain Bob Stewart's presentation provided the class with a first-hand account of WWII, which he experienced as an American bomber pilot. The purpose of the presentation was to help inform students about WWII and to convey his views on the ethics and effectiveness of aerial bombing. Capt. Stewart spoke about the war from a very personal perspective, which naturally has a number of strengths and weaknesses. The fact that he experienced the war himself gives him a large amount of credibility on the topic, at least when he was discussing the part of the war he was involved in. He was also able to share very specific stories and examples of things that happened, while people who simply did research on the war after it happened likely know only general stories. However, Capt. Stewart's personal account may also be limited for several reasons. The events he spoke about took place a very long time ago, so his memory of some events may not have been completely accurate. In addition to this, his views and claims about the war as a whole, outside of the topic of aerial bombing, may be debatable as he was not directly involved with them. Capt. Stewart also had a clear anti-war mentality and strongly believed that aerial bombing was not particularly effective, and that the use of the atomic bomb was unnecessary.
2. Source B: The Fog of War is a documentary film which portrays the thoughts of Robert Mcnamara, who was the United States Secretary of Defense during World War II. This film, produced in 2003, was meant to inform people about the practices of war and to convey Mcnamara's views on war. Mcnamara's role in the war brings with it certain values and limitations. One value is the fact that he was a very important figure during World War II, and as such he knows much about the strategies and practices that were developed and used during World War II. He also has credibility when he discusses his knowledge of the statistics of the war, such as the results that were shown of the firebombing of Japan. Another area he is likely to know about is the people involved the leadership of the various countries involved in the war, as he was one of them himself. One limitation may be that, because Mcnamara was not directly involved the fighting the war, he may have only a general idea of what the process of aerial bombing was actually like. World War II seems to have also had an emotional effect on Mcnamara, making him very anti-war. This may have altered his views on the effectiveness of aerial bombing.
   

Questions (HW 13)

1. Why do you think the abort rate was so high early in the war?
   
2. What was the reaction of the pilots when LeMay said that anyone who aborted would be court marshaled?
3. What was your perspective at the time on the war as a whole? Has it changed at all since then?
   

Class Notes 12/3

Strategic Bombing:

Why was the abort rate so high?

Curtis LeMay- in charge of US strategic bombing, believed in total war

LeMay stated that anyone who aborted would be court marshaled. Abort rate decreases, productivity goes up.

Women worked in factories to build bomber planes. Factories had previously been used to make things like automobiles.

US worked with China against Japan. Using China as a base was inefficient, so the US decided to take back islands from Japan.

March 1945: Tokyo was firebombed, 100,000 dead, 50 square miles were burned

Population of approximately 50% of 67 Japanese Cities killed

"If we lost the war, we'd be tried as war criminals."

Class Notes 12/2

Wolf packs (groups of U-boats)
Atlantic, or Aim of Britain to keep shipping open
Royal Navy, or Royal Oak (British battleship sunk by a U-boat at Scapa Flow)

Allied convoys, or American aid
Torpedoes (used by U-boats to sink ships)

Submarines (U-boats), or Seeking/Sinking the Bismarck
Enigma (German coding machine; codes were broken by Allies)
Aircraft, or Air cover (limited by the "Black Gap")

HW 11

A.

1. The white cliffs represent Britain, the sinking boat represents the Royal Navy, the lion may be symbolic of the United States, the captain is Churchill, and the sharks are the German U-boats.
2. The sharks are biting off parts of the lion, which may represent Germany's plans to defeat the US using U-boats.
   
3. The German cartoonist may have been trying to make the point that Germany would win the Battle of the Atlantic even though Britain had the aid of the US.
   
4. It does not seem like the cartoonist was accurate. While the U-boats were very effective at first, the Allies eventually developed ways to fight back against them.

B.

• The Nazi-Soviet Pact stated that Russia and Germany would not attack each other when both countries invaded different parts of Poland.
• Operation Barbarossa was the massive German invasion of the USSR.
• Scorched-earth policy refers to destroying things so that the enemy cannot use them.
  
• Neutrality is the decision to not join either side of a conflict.
• Lend-Lease aid refers to America's trade with countries involved in the war.
  
• The Tripartite Axis Pact was the alliance between Germany, Italy, and Japan.
• The United Nations was created as a result of WWII, replacing the League of Nations as an international organization.
• WWII was a global-war because it involved countries from North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia.
  
• U-boats were German submarines used to attack the Allies' ships.
• Convoys were large groups of ships that were protected by the navy.
• The Battle of the Atlantic was the battle between the Allies and the German U-boats.

A.

• Second front: The war in the east, as opposed to the war in Europe.
• Area bombing: The tactic of bombing everything in a target area.
• The Allies: Countries that opposed the Axis. Included Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Australia, and Canada.
• Operation Torch: The British and American invasion of Morocco and Algeria.

B.

• Similar: It was likely hot and uncomfortable in both places. Both battles were Allied attacks on the Axis forces. Both battles involved brutal fighting.
  
• Different: El Alamein was in Egypt, where it was probably dry and flat, while New Guinea was probably humid and mountainous. Fighting in New Guinea probably involved a lot of guerrilla warfare, while the Battle of El Alamein was largely based around tanks.
  

HW 10

A. 1. The Soviet citizens are smiling and giving their invaders the Nazi salute.
A. 2. The Soviet citizens were probably treated very poorly by Stalin's communist regime. They may have seen Nazism as an appealing alternative.
A. 3. The people were losing land, property and lives to the Nazis, who they soon discovered to be no less ruthless than Stalin.

B. 1. Stalin was telling his people to destroy their own things, such as livestock, crops, and railway engines so that the Nazis couldn't take them.
B. 2. He probably thought that the Nazis would have been able to use the Soviet Union's own things against it.
B. 3. Soviet citizens would probably have very little left to live off of. The Nazis would probably be forced into a similar situation, running out of supplies more quickly.

C. Method of Attack

• Similar: Blitzkrieg tactics
• Different: The eastern invasion was much larger than the western invasion

Length of Campaign

• Similar:
  
• Different: Eastern campaign was much longer, lasted until the end of Germany's involvement in the war.
  

Effects on Civilians

• Similar: People in the both invasions were forced under Nazi rule
  
• Different: People in the east suffered significantly more
  

Result of Campaign

• Similar: Expanded the scale of the conflict.
  
• Different: In the west, Germany took control of France and was at a standstill with Britain. In the east, Germany was unable to take control of Russia, which pushed the Nazis back and eventually invaded Germany.

A. 1. Japan's oil supplies were under American, British and Dutch control.
A. 2. The countries are portrayed as a chain because of the fact that controlling Japan's oil meant they also had some control over Japan itself.
A. 3. The picture represents how Japan tried to break out of its dependence on the other countries and fight for its own resources.
A. 4. This may have been done to emphasize the point that Japan was breaking free from the West.

B. 1. Three long term causes are Japan's lack of raw materials and oil, Japan's position as the dominant power in the Far East, and the collapse of British colonial power. The most important of these was probably Japan's lack of raw materials and oil, which made Japan desperate to find other ways of getting resources.
B. 2. Three consequences are the Tripartite Axis Pact, the United States' ban on oil trade with Japan, and Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor. The first is the most important of these, as it connected the conflict in the East to the conflict in Europe.
B. 3.

• Japan became the dominant power in the Far East
• United States ban on oil supplies to Japan
• Japan's lack of raw materials and oil
• Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor
• Collapse of British colonial power
• Tripartite Axis Pact
  
• Creation of Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
• Formation of the United Nations
  

Class Notes 11/30

1. Munich Agreement- 1938
2. Nazi-Soviet Pact- 1939
3. Invasion of Poland- 1939
4. Invasion of France- 1940
5. Battle of Britain- 1940-1941
6. London Blitz- 1940-1941
7. Operation Barbarossa- 1941
8. Pearl Harbor- 1941

Class Notes 11/24

Air- Radar, Long Range Bombers, Fighters, Atomic Bomb, Paratroopers

Land- Panzer Tanks (40 mph), Explosive Armor in Tanks, Blitzkrieg

Sea- Capturing Ports, Artificial Harbors, U Boats, Depth Charges, Aircraft Carriers, Offshore Shelling

HW 9

1. Germany used the Luftwaffe to bomb Britain, targeting residential and industrial areas. This practice was probably meant to decrease the effectiveness of British communications and to fill British civilians with fear.
2. The use of massive numbers of tanks seemed to become a popular practice in land warfare. This may have been most notable in the war in North Africa between Britain and Germany and in Germany's invasion of Russia in 1941.
3.

Chapters 3 + 4

Chapter 3
A.1. The Luftwaffe was probably trying to damage Britain's economy and ability to move resources by destroying docks and railways.
A.2. Residential areas were being bombed, which was likely to result in civilian casualties.
A.3. Civilians were probably going to be the most common casualties in this attack. People in their houses or working on docks or railways were likely to be killed.
B.1. The bombing seems to have caused the streets to collapse, and the bus driver was may have panicked and driven into a hole in the road, or he may have been on that part of the road when it collapsed.
B.2. The people in the surrounding area may have moved into sheltered buildings to protect themselves. They must have been terrified by the attack, and they were probably cut off from supplies.

Chapter 4
A.1. The Italians would have struggled with the mountainous terrain and poor leadership while fighting Greek soldiers who were more prepared for the situation.
A.2. The Greeks knew the mountains and were equipped and prepared to fight in them. They must have also been very determined to defend their country, while the Italians were probably suffering from poor morale as a result of poor leadership.
B.

Germany

• Successes: Yugoslavia, Greece, North Africa
  
• Defeats:
  

Italy

• Successes:
• Defeats: Greece/Mediterranean, North Africa
  

Britain

• Successes: North Africa against Italy, Taranto bombing
  
• Defeats: North Africa against Germany, Greece

By mid-1941, it seemed that Germany would most likely win the war.

C.
War: A conflict between different groups or countries
Blitzkrieg: A German strategy involving the use of tanks and aircraft to quickly eliminate a target
Phoney War: The first months of the war between Britain and Germany, in which no actual fighting took place
Luftwaffe: The German airforce
Battle of Britain: Battle in the skies of Britain between the RAF and the invading Luftwaffe
Blitz: The use of blitzkrieg tactics
ARP: Air Raid Precautions
Axis: The alliance between Germany, Italy, and the Balkan states

HW 8

A. 1. Polish civilians were forced to face brutal conditions as a result of the German invasion. Women and children were killed, homes were burned down, and people suffered from starvation.
2. a. The sources may be anonymous because the people did not want Nazi supporters to find out who they were. This slightly affects the value of the evidence, as we have to have faith in the writer of the Polish Black Book that the sources are actually from survivors of the invasion of Poland
b. Source D provides a visual image of the damage described in Sources A-C.
c. Britain probably wanted to expose the evil actions of the Nazis so that people would be convinced that they were right to go to war.
d. The Polish Black Book seems like a valuable source, judging from the sources provided. The descriptions in the sources are compatible with what I already know about Germany's tactics in WWII, and they help readers gain a better understanding of the effects of these tactics.

B. 1. Sources A-D suggest that "humane" warfare would involve respecting the lives and property of civilians, and taking prisoners rather than leaving everybody to die.
2. The sources mention that people are starving to death and that corpses are left out in the streets, and that people are being killed indiscriminately.
3. Sources A-D show the inhumane effects of the methods used by the Germans, suggesting that those methods are themselves inhumane.

C. 1. People were forced into small areas oh the house because of the war. However, they were still divided into the same groups based on wealth and social standing.
2. Source F suggests that people were constantly worried about German attacks, causing them to be very cautious.
3. They called it the Phoney War because there was no actual fighting, but people were preparing for an attack at any moment.
4. A historian could see some of the practices of war that were expected from Germany in WWII. The gas-masks suggest that people expected the use of chemical weapons, while the arrangements of the "big house" suggest that people feared German bombings from the air.

A. 1. Churchill is offering war in Source A. The only other alternative, judging by the tone of his speech, would be to submit to Germany's aggression.
2. The British people who heard the speech probably found hope in Churchill's words. They were convinced that, if they fought long and hard enough, they would be successful in the end.

B. 1. An armada is a large, organized group of ships. The newspaper probably used this word to convey the great size of the fleet that rescued the soldiers from Dunkirk.
2. British newspapers wrote the story in a way that made Britain sound victorious in the battle, saying that its soldiers were "unbeatable." Germany, on the other hand, may have written that it was a defeat for Britain, which was forced to retreat from Dunkirk.

League of Nations Paper 2

"Failures of the League of Nations and attempts at collective security were in fact the main cause of World War II." To what extent do you agree with this claim.

This statement is almost entirely false. The failures of the League of Nations and the international community were largely irrelevant to the actual causes of World War II. The actions of the League did very little towards actually starting the war, but simply failed in its purpose of preventing a war from happening. In fact, the main cause of the Second World War was the rise of militarism, which had become increasingly popular throughout the early 20th century, particularly as a means of dealing with issues of economic and nationalistic importance. This could be seen in various international incidents which are often viewed as the failures of the League of Nations that caused World War II. However, upon closer inspection it is clear that these events were actually examples of militarism that the League of Nations was powerless to stop.

One of these events was the Japanese invasion of the Chinese territory of Manchuria in 1931. This invasion was carried out for what seemed to be mostly economic reasons. Manchuria contained a large amount of natural resources, and offered many opportunities for trade and employment. In addition to this, Manchuria was three times the size of Japan, but at the same time it was the home of a third of the number of people who lived in the Japanese empire. Because of this, Japan adopted a militaristic policy similar to Hitler's idea of gaining "lebensraum," or living space, for Germany. Japan decided that it should take what it wanted from China through the use of force. Meanwhile, China and Japan were both members of the League of Nations, with Japan being one of the leading members of the organization. As such, it was the League's responsibility to maintain collective security by punishing Japan. The League had planned resolve such situations by issuing sanctions against the country that committed the violation. However, using sanctions meant ending trade with that country, and this was not something that any nation was ready to do. Stopping trade with Japan would have been damaging to the global economy, which was already ruined by the Great Depression, and it was also likely to cause a war, which was exactly what the League had hoped to prevent. The League tried to compromise with Japan, suggesting that Japan remove its military from China and that Manchuria become a semi-independent nation. Japan reacted to this by withdrawing from the League of Nations and continuing to invade Chinese provinces such as Jehol.

This event was a definite failure for the League of Nations, showing the League's complete inability to react to certain threats to international peace. Nevertheless, the League of Nations did nothing to actually provoke the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The true reason for the invasion, and thus in this case the true cause of World War II, was Japan's militaristic ideology, with which the military was convinced that it could resolve its nation's economic problems by taking foreign lands. Japan's economy was impacted greatly in 1929 by the Great Depression, so Japanese army officers believed that gaining the economic benefits of territories like Manchuria would help restore their country's former success.

A similar incident occurred when Italy invaded the African country of Ethiopia in 1935. Italy did this because it had been relatively unsuccessful during the European "scramble for Africa" in the 19th century (Stopped here in class), gaining only three colonies at that time. Another reason for the invasion was the fact that Italy's military had been disgraced by its defeat at the hands of Ethiopia at the Battle of Adowa in 1896. It is likely that the fascist Italian dictator Mussolini invaded Ethiopia in order to restore some of this lost dignity, in addition to gaining territory in Africa and the trade and resources it would bring. Like the incident with Japan and China, this was a conflict between two members of the League of Nations. This time, however, the League was able to impose sanctions on Italy. Unfortunately, the League had never tried this before, and so it did not know how ineffective it would be. The sanctions were delayed for six weeks, and even after that delay some nations refused to stop trading with their ally, Italy. The sanctions that did take effect proved to be a hindrance for Italy, but they were not particularly devastating, as there was no sanction on oil, which would have been the only thing that could have stopped Italy's aggression. Because of this failure, the League tried to negotiate with Mussolini with the Hoare-Laval Plan, which offered a large portion of Ethiopia to Italy in return for the end of the invasion. Mussolini agreed, but many people protested, saying that Ethiopia was being betrayed. As a result, the plan was never carried out, and the invasion was not stopped.

It would be difficult to argue that this was not a terrible failure on the League of Nations' part, but that does not mean that this situation was an example of the League causing World War II. This crisis was started by Italy's belief that its superior military strength was the best tool it could use to restore its national pride and to improve its economy. Mussolini knew that Ethiopia had a poorly equipped army, and that his military could easily crush it. It was Italy's decision to use this type of force rather than peaceful negotiation that made this event a cause of the Second World War.

One of the most common accusations against the League of Nations is that its policy of appeasement in regards to Germany's aggressive actions in the 1930's and 1940's. Germany showed several signs suggesting that it was likely to start a conflict, but these were largely ignored by the League of Nations. Hitler's foreign and domestic policies deliberately disregarded the conditions set by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 after the end of World War I. For example, although the Treaty of Versailles had forbidden Germany from having an army larger than 100,000 troops, Hitler increased the size of his military to about 550,000 soldiers by 1935. The rest of Europe may have been worried by this, but no action was taken against Germany. In 1936, only a year later, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland, which had been occupied by France after World War I. France could have easily put an end to this remilitarization by reacting with its own military, but instead it did not react at all. Then, in 1938, Hitler formed an Anschluss, or union, with Austria, although the Treaty of Versailles had stated that Germany could not make such alliances. The League of Nations' unwillingness to react to these things may have been caused by an international feeling of sympathy toward Germany, with Britain and France thinking that they might have been too strict with their punishments in the Treaty of Versailles.

The League of Nations was not truly to blame in this situation, either. As seen in the Ethiopia and Manchuria crises, the League was probably powerless as an organization to do anything to stop Hitler, even if it tried. If anyone was to blame, apart from Germany, it would have been Britain and France. These nations were the leaders of the League, but they could have also taken action on their own, responding to Germany's violations of the Treaty of Versailles with force. Still, Nazi Germany's militaristic policies are the most notable causes of World War II in this example. Hitler clearly focused on building a large military force, and he attempted to use this military to eliminate anything that he thought may be a threat to his power in Europe.

In conclusion, the statement that "failures of the League of Nations and attempts at collective security were in fact the main cause of World War II" is, to a great extent, incorrect. It is true that the League was for the most part unable to prevent a war from happening, but its failures were not a cause of World War II in the way that the international rise of militarism at the time was. The League only failed in its mission to establish and maintain collective security; it did not actually do much that could be seen as having provoked World War II.

League of Nations Paper 2 Outline

"Failures of the League of Nations and attempts at collective security were in fact the main cause of World War II" To what extent do you agree with this statement?

The Failures of the League of Nations were for largely irrelevant to the actual causes of World War II. The League did not do much to truly cause war, but instead failed in its purpose of preventing it. The main cause of World War II was the rise of militarism as a popular method of dealing with issues of economic and nationalistic importance.

1. Failure of the League: Failure to punish Japan for invading Manchuria

• 1931, Japan invades the Chinese territory of Manchuria for largely economic reasons (Manchuria contained large amounts of natural resources) and for more living space, similar to Hitler's idea of lebensraum (Manchuria was three times as large as the Japanese empire, but had a third of the number of people living in it.)
• Both Japan and China were members of the League of Nations. The League's attempts at collective security failed, because no nations wanted to give up trade or start a conflict with Japan.
  
• In 1932, the League attempted to please both Japan and China by requesting that the Japanese military leave Manchuria and that Manchuria become a semi-independent nation. Japan withdraws from the League and continues to take Chinese provinces such as Jehol.
• Militarism- The Japanese military believed that conquering foreign lands would be an effective way to get out of the Great Depression, which destroyed Japan's economy in 1929. The opportunities for trade, resources, and employment offered by Manchuria were very appealing to Japan.
• The League did nothing to cause Japan to invade Manchuria, but simply failed to prevent its militaristic behavior.
  

2. Failure of the League: Failure to resolve the Ethiopia Crisis

• 1935, Italy invades Ethiopia. This was because Italy had been relatively unsuccessful in the European "scramble for Africa" in the 1800's, having only gained 3 colonies: Libya, Eritrea, and Somaliland. In addition, Italy was disgraced by its defeat at the hands of Ethiopia in 1896 at the Battle of Adowa. It is likely that Mussolini wanted to restore some amount of dignity to his nation, and to gain territory in Africa to benefit from trade and resources.
  
• Italy and Ethiopia were both members of the League of Nations. This was the first time the League actually issued sanctions against a country, but it failed in doing so. The sanctions were delayed for six weeks, and some of Italy's allies did not stop trading with Italy. The sanctions that were made were not entirely devastating to Italy, because there was no sanction on oil, much of which was controlled by the US, a non-League nation.
• The Hoare-Laval Plan suggested that Italy take a large portion of Ethiopia and stop its invasion. Mussolini agreed to this, but many people thought that the plan was unfair to Ethiopia, and so it was not carried out.
  
• Militarism- Mussolini's Italy saw its superior military strength (Ethiopia was poorly equipped) as the best means of restoring its national pride and gaining economic benefits.
• Clearly a failure for the League, but even if the Hoare-Laval Plan was successful, Italy still would have been in control of Ethiopia, and there was no guarantee that it's aggression would not continue.
  

3. Failure of the League: Failures at the World Disarmament Conference

• 1932-1933, the League of Nations met with the purpose of decreasing the amount of arms held globally by member states in order to maintain collective security.
• Germany asked for arms equality with France. France refused, saying that Germany would have to wait 8 years for this. Germany uses this as an excuse to withdraw from the League.
  

4. Failure of the League: Failures of the Locarno Treaties

• 1925, Germany, France, and Belgium agreed to respect their borders. Britain and Italy agreed to enforce this.
  
• Germany did not guarantee its borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia. Britain did not argue against this. It could be said that this encouraged Hitler to invade these countries. However, Hitler attacked France and Britain anyway, so it is unlikely that he would have changed his plans had Britain agreed to help Poland and Czechoslovakia.
  

5. Failure of the League: Failure of Appeasement

• 1935, Germany increased the size of its army by 550,000 troops. Treaty of Versailles had set a limit of 100,000.
• Remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936
  
• Anschluss with Austria in 1938
• Although France and Britain could have used their own military forces early on to counter those of Germany, it had been proven that the League could do very little to stop Germany, and so it is difficult to blame the League of Nations for actually helping to cause the war in this case.
  

Class Notes 11/18

Paper 2 Prep

1. Review demands of a "To What Extent" essay

2. Ideological Causes of WWI?

• Fascism, Nazism
• Communism
• Capitalism
• Racism
• Imperialism
• Militarism
  
• Totalitarianism
  
• Pacifism
  

HW 6

1. Discuss a political cause of WWII that could be related to the reading.

One political cause related to the reading could be seen in the failures of the League of Nations. When Japan invaded Manchuria, it was clear that the League was incapable of maintaining its promise of keeping peace through collective security. Japan went unpunished for its actions, because the League of Nations was not willing or able to enforce its policies.

2. Discuss an economic cause of WWII that could be related the the reading.

The Great Depression was an economic cause of WWII related to Japan's invasion of Manchuria, as well as to the League of Nation's failure to punish Japan. Normally, the League of Nations would set up sanctions against a nation that went against it, meaning that other countries wouldn't trade with that nation. However, the Great Depression had placed the world in a terrible economic state. Because of this, no nations wanted to give up trade with Japan.

3. Discuss an ideological cause of WWII that could be related to the reading.

Japan's position against communism could be seen as an ideological cause of that nation's involvement in World War II. Japan formed an Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, with the two countries agreeing on the goal of stopping the spread of international communism. Italy also agreed to this pact soon afterward.

4. Answer question A from Chapter 8.

1. Japan
2. The clouds probably represent death or the darkness of war.
3. The cartoonist may have been trying to portray Japan as a menacing, overwhelming force that is invading China, which is portrayed as a helpless victim.

5. Answer question B from Chapter 8.

1. The family shown seems to be a somewhat wealthy Chinese family.
2. The family is probably fleeing because of the Japanese invasion of China. They may be taking everything they can with them because they believe they will be unable to return to their home.

Class Notes 11/17

1932-33: World Disarmament Conference

• Sponsored by LoN
• Germany asks for equality in arms w/ France
• France refuses, asks to delay arms equality for 8 years
• Partly because Great Britain and US will not guarantee French border v. German attack
• Hitler may have ignored any treaty anyway, seeing his history of breaking various treaties he had signed with other nations.
  

HW 5

6. I believe that Neville Chamberlain's assessment of the causes of World War II is accurate, to an extent. "The German Chancellor," as Chamberlain refers to Hitler, was in fact largely to blame for the war. However, appeasement by people such as Chamberlain himself was an almost equally responsible cause. It would be very ignorant for the British Prime Minister to deny that his nation and its allies had any role in starting the war.

As Chamberlain claims, Hitler seems to have done much more than any other single person towards beginning World War II. If Hitler had not been in power, the conflict would likely have never reached such a large scale. Hitler took advantage of the rise of dictators like himself, uniting various powerful leaders of the time, and in doing so, helped to start the war and later to expand it. He did this by working with leaders such as Italy's Mussolini, who allowed Hitler to for an Anschluss, or union, with Austria in 1938, and the emperor of Japan, which had invaded China and would eventually involve the United States in World War II. Hitler was also very aggressive in the years leading up to the war, annexing territories such as Czechoslovakia and remilitarizing the Rhineland, which had been occupied by France. While this aggression was ignored for the most part by the rest of the world, it served to increase international tensions and prove the limitations of the League of Nations, encouraging other dictators to take actions of their own.

Hitler's use of deceit was also to blame. Hitler had promised that, after he took Czechoslovakia, he would be done invading other countries. Soon afterward, however, he invaded Poland, revealing to Britain and France that Germany could not be trusted and had to be stopped. Similarly, Germany had signed a non-aggression pact with Russia, with the two nations agreeing that neither would attack the other when they both invaded different parts of Poland. Hitler betrayed this agreement and launched a massive assault on Russia, further expanding the conflict he had helped to begin.

For these reasons, Hitler held much of the responsibility for the war. Nevertheless, he was not the only person responsible. Western Europe's policy of appeasement allowed Hitler to do what he did, and as such it could be seen as having been as just as much of a cause of World War II as Hitler's actions were. France and Britain had multiple opportunities to stop Hitler; for example, they could have reacted to Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland, or to Hitler's efforts to increase the size of the German military beyond the limitations set by the Versailles Treaty. It could be argued that there are always threats like Hitler in the world, and that they only reach their full potential as threats when others allow them to do so through their mistakes.

HW 4

1. The League of Nations helped to improve international relations in some cases, resolving various issues between countries. For example, the results of territorial disputes such as the argument between Finland and Sweden over the Aaland Islands and the one between Germany and Poland about Upper Silesia were decided by the League of Nations, which gave the Aaland Islands to Finland and divided Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland. These decisions were effective, and were accepted internationally.
In addition to this, the League was able to prevent certain incidents from becoming violent conflicts. A Greek invasion of Bulgaria was ended quickly by the League of Nations, which demanded for Greece to withdraw its forces and pay reparations for Bulgaria. However, the League was not entirely successful in all its efforts. It had no real power with which to enforce its decisions, meaning that some of its efforts, such as the Disarmament Commission were ineffective, as the League seemed to have very little actual authority over the amount of weapons nations could keep.

2. The League of Nations was successful in some ways, but it could have been a much more effective organization overall. For a number of reasons, it lacked the power it needed to be make authoritative international decisions. The first of these reasons was the fact that some of the most powerful nations at the time were not involved in the League's activities. For example, the United States was never a member of the League, and the USSR was not a member until 1934. If France and Britain, the two countries that seemed to be in charge of the League, had figured out a way to involve these nations, they may have had a better chance of maintaining collective security.
The League of Nations was also largely inactive during the events leading up to World War II. This may have been because France and Britain felt that they had be too strict with its punishments for Germany in the Treaty of Versailles. If the League had taken action against aggression by dictators such as Hitler, it may have been able to prevent or lessen the impact of the Second World War. Specifically, the German remilitarization of the Rhineland could have easily been stopped if France reacted by sending in its troops.

Class Notes 11/10

Ideological Causes of WWII
Communism vs. Capitalism
Nazi belief of the superiority of the German people

More Causes

Dawes Plan 1924:

• US loan to Germany for 800 Gold Marks
• Germany's Gustav Streseman makes deal w/ Dawes
  
• France withdraws troops from Ruhr
• German economy starts to recover
• Starts period of prosperity in Germany 1924-1929

"Spirit of Locarno"

• Idea that collective security will work
• Series of agreements between various countries (France, Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Poland...)
• Most important agreement: Germany, France, and Belgium promise to respect each others' borders.
• Germany refused to make any guarantees about its borders with Poland and Czechoslovakia
• France promises Poland and Czechoslovakia help if Germany attacks (Great Britain does NOT promise this).
• Historical Context: In 1925, the world's economy is doing well. Not as many people are concerned about German aggression

Kellog-Briand Pact

• US Secretary of State and French Foreign Minister
• 65 Nations renounce war as an instrument of national policy
• Useless agreement, no power to enforce it. No mention of sanctions.
• Japan, which signed the agreement, attacks Manchuria in 1931. League of Nations does nothing to stop it.

Class Notes 11/9

More Causes of WWII

Italy was not happy with the Treaty of Versailles.

• Italy was promised Fiume during WWI, but was not given it.
  
• After WWI, Italy took Fiume by force.

Washington Naval Conference (1921)

• Purpose was to avoid another naval race and improve relations between the US and Japan
• Long-term economic cause of WWII: Economic competition between US, Japan, and Great Britain in the Pacific
• Japan, US, and GB agree to limit the size of their navies.
• Japan agrees to have its navy be 3/5 the size of the navies of US and GB
• Germany and GB both built up navies before WWI (example of militarism)
• Japan allowed to keep former German colonies in the Pacific
• Western powers agreed not to build any more naval bases near Japan
• 1922- US, GB, Japan agree to protect China's neutrality
• US and GB were suspicious of Japanese expansion

Causes of WWI that relate to causes of WWII

• Autocracy– Kaiser Wilhelm, Hitler
  
• Militarism– Naval race between GB and Germany before WWI, US and Japan before WWII
  
• Secret Agreements– Alliances before WWI, Hitler's Anschluss with Austria before WWII
  
• Colonialism–
  

Class Notes 11/6

3 Long Term Causes

1. Rise of Dictators
2. Treaty of Versailles
3. Failures of the League of Nations
   

2 Political Causes

1. Appeasement
   
2. Capitalism vs. Communism
   

1 Question

1. How much did WWI influence WWII?
   

SURPRISE INTERPRETATION!!!

World War II is a CONTINUATION of World War I!

• Treaty of Versailles was an act of war on Germany (extreme)
• ToV gave no chance for lasting peace
• United States never signed a treaty, didn't join League of Nations
• France invades Germany in 1923, when Germany defaults on Reparations

Arguments against "Continuation"

• Aside from 1923, no formal fighting
• Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919
  
• By 1929 Germany was back in the international community (member of the League of Nations, signed Locarno Treaty 1925, Kellog-Briand 1928)

Failures of the League of Nations:

• Main aim was to promote collective security and avoid war

BUT... There were problems.

• Perception that France and Britain ran the LoN for their own interests
• France and GB make mandates out of the Middle East
• US never joins, lack of a major power to enforce/pay for enforcement against violations (Japan attacks Manchuria, Italy attacks Ethiopia), other major powers never in at the same time (Germany 1926–1933, USSR 1934–1939, Italy 1920–1935, Japan 1920–1933)
  

Class Notes 11/5

Compare and contrast views of Hitler expressed in the Barbarossa and Downfall

• Psychological Analysis: Both Downfall and Barbarossa showed Hitler as being mentally unstable.
• Two different perspectives: Stoessinger (Western) and Hirschbiegel (German) - maybe have influenced the fact that Stoessinger discussed Hitler's effect on people outside of Germany while Hirschbiegel portrays the effects of Hitler on people within Germany

Long Term Causes of WWII

1. Treaty of Versailles
2. Failures of the League of Nations and collective security
   
3. Rise of Dictators (Fascist Italy 1922, Nazi Germany 1933, Japan 1920's...)
   
4. Worldwide economic crisis / Great Depression
5. Appeasement
   

HW 3

Compare and Contrast the origins, purposes, values and limitations of Why Nations Go to War and Downfall.

Why Nations Go to War is a book written by John G. Stoessinger, who has a Ph.D. and is a "Distinguished Professor of Global Diplomacy" at the University of San Diego in California. Stoessinger claims to have written the book because of his experiences as someone who has lived through most of the major wars of the 20th century. He hopes to be able to share his insight about the role of people in causing wars with readers, and as such his writing seems to be primarily educational in intention.

Downfall is a movie directed by Oliver Hirschbiegel. The film depicts the final days of Germany's involvement in World War II, with a focus on portraying German perspective of the actions of Hitler and his inner circle. It is based on the writings of Joachim Fest, a well known historian who experienced World War II first hand in the German military. A number of personal accounts from some of the real people portrayed in the film are also used as sources.

Why Nations Go to War is a valuable source to people who are studying the role of Hitler during World War II. The author goes into detail comparing Hitler to other rulers, such as Stalin, in terms of both personality and methods of leadership. Depending on what is being studied, Stoessinger's psychological insight may be helpful or unnecessary for the reader. An extensive bibliography is used to support the author's claims.

Downfall is helpful for viewers in some ways, although its limitations must also be considered. The film effectively provides a visual and emotional idea of what Germany was like during the end of World War II. The Nazis are shown as being human, rather than monstrous and evil. However, it could be argued that this humanization is not entirely accurate. In addition to this, some of the personal accounts used as sources may be very twisted interpretations of the truth, as they were told by members of a regime that is still globally looked down on today.


Other notes about Why Nations Go to War:

• Published in 2005 – value or limitation? Events happened a long time ago, but that gave Stoessinger more time to look at newer sources
  
• Author spent boyhood fleeing from Nazis – possible that he had a negative view of the Nazis
• Written from a western point of view
• May be missing some historical context of Stoessinger's psychological analysis of Hitler
  

HW 2

1. Germany was very successful in the first 5 days. It took a large amount Russia's territory, destroyed most of its air force, and took more than half a million prisoners.
2. The term "Great Purge" refers to when Stalin ruthlessly disposed of countless people from various groups, including his own military.
3. Stalin effectively crippled his own military forces with his purges, making it difficult for Russia to resist the Nazi invasion.
4. Stalin was very focused on maintaining his own power within the USSR, rather than on the threats posed by other countries.
5. Stalin hoped that Germany would fight Britain and France, resulting in western Europe, which was Russia's enemy in many ways, being weakened. He also thought that France and Britain were trying to make Russia fight Germany (which they were).
   
6. Stalin thought that a temporary alliance would allow him to prepare for the inevitable war with Germany.
   
7. Stalin made orders against attacking German planes and demanded the release of captive German spies.
8. Stalin did not listen to the West's warnings, he made assumptions about Hitler's foreign policy methods, and was unaware of who Hitler was as a person.
9. Hitler made seemingly thoughtless risks in his invasion of Russia, and opened a two-front war.
10. According to the author, Stalin won the war because he was able to maintain a "grip on reality," unlike Hitler.
    

HW 1

1. In Why Nations Go To War, John G. Stoessinger discusses the role of people in causing wars, because of his own experiences with conflicts throughout his life.
2. The book describes Jews and Communists as being Hitler's worst enemies.
3. The "supplementary protocol" divided up Poland between Hitler and Stalin.
4. The author suggests that Hitler allied himself with Stalin temporarily so that Germany could gain more power and then easily defeat Russia at a later time.
5. Hitler was upset by Stalin's conquest of territories such as Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
   
6. Mussolini's decision to invade Greece and the coup in Yugoslavia caused Hitler to delay his invasion of Russia.
7. Germany would not show any mercy to Russians. Military officers who surrendered would be executed, Russian children would be taught to obey Germans, Moscow was to be burned down, and all Russian literature, culture, and history would be banned.
   

Paper 2 - Successes and Failures of Hitler

During his rule in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, Hitler achieved a particularly inconsistent level of success regarding both domestic and foreign policies. Although he was a strong dictator in many ways, Hitler made a few poor decisions which ultimately kept him from being a truly successful ruler. One can see a strong contrast between cautiously planned policies and actions that were seemingly based on nothing more that Nazi ideology in the methods Hitler used as a ruler of a single-party state.

One of Hitler's primary aims in domestic policy was the total indoctrination of the German people. He believed that, by using propaganda, his regime would be able to spread the popularity of Nazism among citizens, making them more loyal to the state. To do this, Hitler appointed Dr. Joseph Goebbels as the Minister of Propaganda, giving him control over what the people could and could not see. Goebbels' expansive propaganda campaigns included the use of radio, film, newspapers, and mass rallies, all of which were used only in ways that purely support Hitler. Any anti-Nazi messages in media such as literature and journalism were prevented from reaching the public. Such censorship quickly became a vital part of Hitler's domestic policy; within a year of his rise to power, about 4,000 books were banned for being "un-German." Children, being very impressionable, were perfect candidates for indoctrination. Education was closely controlled by the state, with textbooks being rewritten in favor of Hitler's views on history and biology. Teachers were also selected carefully, and had to be approved of by Nazis. It was made necessary for boys and girls to join youth groups, such as the Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens. These groups had further impact on German children and prepared them for their future roles as ideal Nazi men (soldiers) and women (mothers). Overall, Hitler was successful in his attempts at indoctrination. While there were some groups of rebellious young people, such as the Edelweiss Pirates, no notable movements against Hitler came from the people of Germany.

Another of Hitler's domestic aims was the unification of Germany under one political party. Hitler hoped to turn Germany into a single-party state under the Nazis, eliminating any internal threats of political opposition. The method he used to achieve this goal was known as Gleichschaltung, meaning "forcible coordination." Hitler effectively transformed Germany into a police state, using force and violence to keep order in his nation. These methods were often carried out by the Gestapo, Hitler's secret state police, who were responsible for the arrests of "Enemies of the State," which included a range of potential political opponents to the Nazis, ranging from Jews to communists. After being arrested, these people were sent to concentration camps, where they were kept as prisoners and systematically killed. Hitler also used legal methods to maintain his position of power. The Enabling Law was passed in 1933, allowing the dictator to establish his own laws without receiving the consent of the Reichstag. Hitler appeared to be successful in this case as well, but it could easily be argued that this success was almost entirely false. Hitler did very little in terms of actually uniting Germany. He did not make any convincing efforts to make peace with Germans who had different political views. Rather than bringing the people of Germany together, Hitler simply turned those who did not agree with him into outcasts and "Enemies of the State."

Hitler was able to achieve some amount of success in his foreign policy aims, specifically in his attempts to overrule the Treaty of Versailles. After the First World War, Britain and France forced this treaty on Germany, which was blamed for causing the conflict. Germany was inflicted by several strict limitations and punishments from which it seemed impossible to recover. Hitler, like most Germans, viewed the Treaty of Versailles as being cruel and unfair, and made it's abolition one of his goals. There were many situations in which Hitler blatantly ignored the treaty, but Britain and France showed no tangible opposition to his actions. (Stopped here in class) For example, by 1935, Hitler had increased the size of Germany's military by 550,000 troops, when the Treaty of Versailles had only permitted the country to have 100,000. France and Britain were concerned by this, but did nothing to stop it. The next year, Hitler sent 30,000 armed soldiers into the Rhineland, which had been occupied by the French. Hitler remilitarized the area, knowing that he would be forced to give up if France reacted, but there was no reaction. Similarly, in 1938, Germany formed an Anschluss, or union, with Austria. Germany was forbidden from making this type of alliance, but again, Hitler was largely ignored by western Europe.

Hitler's final foreign policy aim was the creation of a "great German Reich" in Europe. This empire would require "lebensraum," or living space. In addition to this, Hitler hoped that he would be able to unite all German speaking countries under the power of the Nazis. Hitler made some definite progress toward this goal, forming a union with Austria in 1938 and then invading and annexing Czechoslovakia in 1939. There was very little resistance to either of these actions, making it appear as if the expansion of Germany's Reich would be unstoppable. However, Hitler made a deadly mistake in 1939 when he invaded Poland. France and Britain felt that Germany had become too much of a threat and that Hitler could not be trusted, as he had claimed that he was done expanding his power after taking Czechoslovakia. Because of this, the two western countries reconsidered their policy of appeasement and declared war on Nazi Germany. Meanwhile, Hitler had agreed to a non-aggression pact with Russia, meaning that neither country would attack the other when they both invaded different parts of Poland. Germany broke this Nazi-Soviet pact in 1941 by invading Russia. By doing this Hitler had opened a two-front war, which he was not ready to fight. Germany's involvement in World War II ended along with its hopes of creating an empire in 1945, when Hitler committed suicide.

In conclusion, Hitler was an unsuccessful ruler of a single-party state. His few successes were generally more dependent on the weaknesses of others, such as the German people's susceptibility to propaganda and Europe's unwillingness to be strict with Germany, than on his own strengths as a dictator. Even with these accomplishments, Hitler did very little to help or improve his nation, instead merely improving his own image and that of his regime. In the end, almost everything that Hitler had achieved in his reign either proved to be superficial or collapsed after Nazi Germany's defeat in the Second World War.

10/30 Paper 2 Outline

Evaluate the successes and failures of one ruler of a single-party state.

During his rule in Germany from 1933 to 1935, Hitler showed a particularly inconsistent level of judgment regarding both domestic and foreign policies. Although he was a strong dictator in many ways, he made a few poor decisions which ultimately kept him from becoming a truly successful ruler. One can see a strong contrast between cautious foresight and seemingly thoughtless actions in matters ranging from Hitler's management of his own country to his negotiations and conflicts with others.

Domestic Policy Aim: Indoctrination

• Hitler aimed to use propaganda to spread the popularity of Nazi beliefs.
• Placed Joseph Goebbles (Minister of Propaganda) in charge of propaganda and censorship. About 4000 books were banned within a year of Hitler's rise to power.
• Education was closely controlled by the government. Textbooks were rewritten to fit Nazi ideals, and teachers had to be Nazi-approved.
• Youth organizations such as the Hitler Youth (all boys had to join at 14) and the League of German Maidens prepared children for their future roles as ideal German men and women (soldiers and mothers)
  

Domestic Policy Aim: Employment

• Hitler aimed to decrease the rate of unemployment in Germany
  
• Unsuccessful- though records do show that unemployment decreased dramatically (over 6 million were unemployed in 1932, full employment was achieved by 1939), it stayed mostly consistent after it changed. This was because the reason for this increase in employment was that Hitler did not count enemies of the state, women, or people in the military as being unemployed, and because censorship had caused many people (writers, teachers, artists) to lose their jobs.
  

Domestic Policy Aim: Uniting Germany under a single political party

• Hitler aimed to turn Germany into a single-party state under the Nazis (Gleichschaltung, or forcible coordination)
  
• Methods: Enabling Law (1933, Hitler did not have to ask the Reichstag for consent to make laws), establishment of a Police State
  
• Seemed successful, but at what cost? This was mostly done through the use of fear and violence (Gestapo, Concentration Camps). Didn't actually unite Germany, but eliminated his opposition
  

Foreign Policy Aim: Overrule the Treaty of Versailles

• Increased the size of Germany's military to 550,000 troops by 1935 (Treaty of Versailles only allowed 100,000) with no tangible opposition from Britain or France
• Remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936 - sent in 30,000 troops, French did not react
  
• Anschluss with Austria in 1938 - Germany was forbidden from making alliances, but again France and Britain did nothing to stop it.
  

Foreign Policy Aim: Create a "great German Reich"

• Made an Anschluss with Austria, Annexed Czechoslovakia (1939), no reaction from France/Britain (appeasement)
  
• Invaded Poland (1939), France and Britain declared war
• Betrayed the Nazi-Soviet Pact w/ Russia
• Unsuccessful: opened a two-front war with enemies it was not ready to fight, Hitler commits suicide in 1945, loses everything
  

Not a successful ruler; Hitler's successes often relied more on the weaknesses of others than on his own strengths. In addition, these successes did little to benefit the state of Germany, mostly serving only to improve the image of the Nazis.

10/29 Class Notes

3 Successes of Hitler

• Propaganda - Indoctrination of children (Hitler Youth, changing of textbooks)
• Keeping order inside Germany - Use of Gestapo, SS
  
• Overruling the Treaty of Versailles - increasing size of military, invading territories
  

2 Failures of Hitler

• Invading Britain - Germany lost the Battle of Britain, let British retreat in the Battle of Dunkirk
• Opening a two front war - Germany was not ready to fight Russia or America

1 Different Interpretation

• It could be argued that Hitler only kept order because he killed many of his own people

10/28 Paper 2 Notes

Failures:

• Opening a two-front war (invaded Russia June 22, 1941, declared war on America in 1941)
• Employment
  

Successes: Often related to taking advantage of the weakness of others

• Propaganda
• Invading the West
  

Class Notes 10/27

Battle of Dunkirk- Germany attacked French and British forces at Dunkirk, allowed the British to escape to fight later.

Battle of Britain- Germany uses blitzkrieg tactics and bombs British targets. Britain fights back and eventually wins the battle.

Churchill- Prime minister of Great Britain

Jewish people in Poland were forced to live in ghettos.

HW 29

A.1. Declaring war on America was a great mistake for Germany, which was already struggling to fight two other nations at the time. Having been brought into the war, America helped make its allies, Britain and Russia, even stronger in addition to sending its own military forces to Europe.

A.2. I think that Germany would have had a much better chance of winning the war if it had not gotten America involved. Without America, there would not likely have been as much coordination between Britain and Russia, and Germany may have been able to defeat those two nations separately.

B. General von Stauffenberg's attempt to kill Hitler could be seen as a reasonable action with the purpose of bringing peace back to Europe. However, although the war probably would have ended more quickly if he succeeded, I think that the course of history would have been very similar. On the other hand, without the inclusion of Russia and America's roles in ending the war, Germany may not have ended up being as divided as it was during the Cold War.

HW 28

A.1. Rudolf Hoss could be considered evil because of his role in the holocaust. He was in charge of creating places in which Jews and enemies of the state could be killed as efficiently as possible. He then had other Nazis remove anything valuable from the bodies.
A.2. Rudolf Hoss may not have been evil because he was doing what he was told to do by the Nazis, and because his perception was twisted by propaganda.

I agree with the intentionalist view of the holocaust. Hitler had said throughout his rise to power that he intended to exterminate the Jews. If the holocaust was, in fact, forced on Hitler, he still did everything he could to justify it, implying that it was the right thing to do.

HW 27

A. According to source B, German colonists had high expectations of what life would be like in the "great German Reich," believing that they would be living under ideal conditions in beautiful, spacious areas.

B.1. Foreign workers were made to work for as long as their employers demanded, and they had to accept punishment from their employers.
B.2. Foreign workers were prohibited from complaining, visiting churches or theaters, having sexual intercourse, being educated, getting health care, and having any more food than necessary.
B.3. The Germans probably treated foreigners so badly because of their Nazi ideology, which promoted the idea of a pure German race. Nazis were also setting strict policies against immigration, which may have been another reason for this treatment.

C.1. Hitler wanted to completely destroy Leningrad and leave its population to die.
C.2. Hitler probably gave this order because of his strong position against communism, and because he did not want to include Russians in his Reich, hoping for racial purity.

10/21 Class Notes

Possible Causes of World War II:

• Treaty of Versailles
• Hitler himself?
• Germany as a whole?
  
• World economic crisis 1929-30's
• Appeasement/mistakes of others?
• Rise of dictators?
• Fear of worldwide communist revolution

Many western nations were more afraid of communism than they were of the Nazis. They may have hoped that Germany would help protect them from the Soviet Union.

Activity:

1. Britain did not intervene for various reasons. Some British people believed that Hitler was justified in taking back the territory Germany lost in WWI. Others hoped that Germany would fight Russia, keeping the West safe from communism. Neville Chamberlain seemed to believe that what was happening in Czechoslovakia was none of Britain's business, and that Hitler would not invade any other countries.
2. Source 20.34 shows how Britain realized that it may have appeased Hitler for too long, and that it would have to resist further expansion of Germany, which was clearly an aggressive threat.
3. Sources 20.35-38 suggest that Italy supported Hitler in his annexing of Austria. However, the first of these sources shows Italy as being more important than Hitler, while the last suggests that Hitler was becoming more powerful than Mussolini.
4. A. Sources 20.39-41 show Russia's views of Germany's actions. Russia viewed Germany as a threat, but they suggest that capitalist western nations were protecting and guiding Germany. B. Source 20.42 shows that the Soviet Union has decided to work with Nazi Germany, despite having previously been afraid of being invaded.
   

HW 26

A.
B1. Germany and Russia agreed not to fight with each other over Poland. Germany would take the western part of the country, while Russia would get the eastern part.
B2. This may have been surprising because Hitler had claimed that he would not invade any other countries after Czechoslovakia.

1. Appeasement refers to Britain and France trying to avoid violent conflict with Italy, Germany and Japan by not resisting their actions and demands.
2. This may have been justified for a number of reasons. Firstly, they thought that war would only become more devastating after World War I. It was also thought that Germany could work with the rest of Europe both economically and against communism, which was threatening to spread from Russia. In addition to this, some people thought that Germany's grievances with the Treaty of Versailles were understandable.
3. Appeasement does not seem to have caused World War II, but it almost encouraged it when Britain and France may have been able to easily stop Germany from becoming a threat by taking a firm stance on the issues facing Europe. For example, Hitler admitted at one point that if there was any resistance from France when he remilitarized the Rhineland he would have been forced to give up. However, there was little resistance to Hitler's actions, allowing him to become a powerful figure in Europe and setting up World War II.
4. Hitler used propaganda in order to make it seem as if Germany was justified in invading Czechoslovakia. The propaganda campaign was based around the idea that Germans in Czechoslovakia were being discriminated against by the government. While it may have been true that Germans were living under difficult conditions, Nazi propaganda exaggerated this fact dramatically.
   

HW 25

A. Rearmament refers to when Hitler expanded Germany's military, ignoring the Treaty of Versailles. Remilitarization was when Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland to take it back from the French. Anschluss refers to the union Germany formed with Austria in order to unite German-speaking people.

B. In 1934, Hitler broke the Treaty of Versailles by increasing the size of his army to 300,000 men and building 2 battleships and 6 submarines. In 1935, Hitler announced that there would be compulsory military service, which would further expand the army. In 1936 the German army moved into the Rhineland, an action that was forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. Germany also formed a union (anschluss) with Austria in 1938, once again going against the Treaty of Versailles.

Hitler seemed to be making a large amount of progress towards achieving his foreign policy goals by 1938. He had broken the Treaty of Versailles multiple times without any opposition, and had built up an intimidating military in doing so. He had also started to reclaim territory, such as the Rhineland, and he had some success in uniting the world's German-speaking countries, as seen in the anschluss with Austria.

10/19 Class Notes

3 policies against opponents

• Jews couldn't be citizens
• German citizens couldn't marry Jews
• Made it illegal to join other parties
  

2 economic policies

• Gave out government contracts to businesses
  
• Used quotas
  

1 policy to gain support of common people

• Leisure programs

"3 legs of the stool" (Nazi support)

• Afraid
• Ignorant
• Willing Collaboration

How did Hitler get support from the following groups?

• Big Business - government contracts, outlawed labor unions
  
• Army - Germany became an increasingly militaristic society
  
• Common Workers - Leisure cruises, made more jobs available by eliminating enemies of the state
  

Last Word

D - Dissolution of other parties
O - Outlaw Judaism
M - Military power
E - Eliminate "enemies of the state"
S - SS and SA used to keep Hitler in power
T - Treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain abolished
I - Indoctrination of the German people
C - Create a totalitarian state
P - Pure German race
O - Organize leisure activities
L - Long-lasting world power
I - Immigration stopped
C - Censorship of the media
Y - Youths raised with Nazi ideals

HW 23

Chapter 8

A.1. The liner was probably going on a cruise to a place like the Canary Islands.
A.2. The people on the liner were probably all workers who were loyal to the Nazi party.
A.3. About 62 marks, which is 2 weeks' wages.
A.4. The Nazis may have wanted Germans to be able to ignore the war and feel comfortable despite all the terrible things that were happening.
A.5. The photograph was probably taken to encourage people to work hard and be loyal to the Nazis so that they could be rewarded with a vacation like the cruise shown.

B.1. The joke seems to be referring to how quickly the automobile industry was forgotten in favor of war industries.
B.2. The joke suggests that not all Germans completely approved of their government's actions, specifically the decision to go to war.

Chapter 9

A. Propaganda is the advertisement of certain ideas and beliefs to large groups of people. Rallies are massive assemblies that use things like parades, music, and speeches to convey propaganda to the people. Censorship is when ideas are stopped from reaching the public.

B. I think that the second joke would have been permitted, because it does not say anything offensive about the Nazis. The first joke gives a negative portrayal of Hitler, while the third suggests that the SS is bad and could be outwitted by an enemy of the state.

HW 22

Question 1: How did the Nazis use the education system to: A) Help establish an authoritarian state and B) Achieve one or more of their other aims?

A. Schools indoctrinated children with class assignments, encouraging them to think certain ways about certain things (war, Germany, religion), Teachers had to receive special training and join Nazi teachers unions

B. Children were taught that the state was more important than individuals and spread other propaganda messages (ie. Jews are evil, Germans should join the military)

Question 2: Discuss 3 Social and Religious policies that A) Helped establish an authoritarian regime and B) helped achieve one or more of their other aims?

A. The Hitler Youth gave children training similar to what they would do in the military, encouraging them to fight for their country. Nazis also took people's focus away from religion, making them focus more on Germany.

B. Laws preventing Jews from being or marrying German citizens helped accomplish the goal of creating a pure German race.

Question 3: Complete questions B+C from handout 7

B.1. 1933-1934 - This may have been because Jews were not counted as unemployed, women were removed from the workforce, and many people started to join the military.
B.2. 1935-1936 - This may have been because the largest changes Hitler made to the workforce had already taken place.

C. 6,014,000; 302,000; 5,712,000; enemies of the state; women; pocket money; free meals; unions; 1,400,000

Journal of an Enemy of the State (HW 20)

Things have not gone well in Germany since the elections of 1932. The Nazi party, having grown immensely since its formation, has become the indisputable authority in my country, despite Hitler having been denied the position of Chancellor by President Hindenburg. I suspect that some amount of political corruption was involved in that man's rise to power. If Germany's Nationalist leaders had the idea that Hitler and his followers could be controlled, they were evidently mistaken. The situation has quickly gotten out of hand. The SA, Hitler's loyal private army of Storm Troopers, has caused endless grief for anyone who dares to oppose the Nazi ideology. My fellow party members of the KPD have been subjected to brutal violence by these thugs, I myself having narrowly escaped death or injury multiple times.

It has been made clear that the National Socialists of Germany do not look fondly upon the Socialists of the Soviet Union, and I recognize that Stalin's methods have not had ideal results. But, having lived under these circumstances, it is difficult not to wonder if Germany is really better off being led by Hitler. My party had expected that this would happen in the event that Hitler rose to power, and I, along with other communists, have publicly spoken my mind on the matter. As such, I fear for my life. I have seen, often in the confusion and excitement of Nazi rallies, close friends being pulled aside and stabbed to death by the SA, while the crowds looked on as if they did not recognize the chaos around them. In fact, it is possible that they are not aware of it, as it is not easy to focus on anything when surrounded by the overwhelming amounts of propaganda employed by the Nazis, ranging from eye-catching banners to blaring loudspeakers.

These days, however, I see most of this from my windows. I am afraid to leave my home, knowing that I now qualify as an "Enemy of the State." I have heard stories of the concentration camps, and the "Deaths Head" units that run them, their uniforms adorned with skulls and crossbones. I am almost beginning to find it amusing how the Nazis seem to go out of their way to portray themselves as hateful villains through the use of such emblems. But they have effectively created a police state that rules with fear as much as propaganda, and I can not pretend to be immune to either of these. Goebbel's efforts have blurred the lines between myth and reality, to the extent where even I am failing to remember what is true. Meanwhile, the threat of the Gestapo has me afraid to sleep at night. At any moment, I could be dragged from my home and forcibly thrown into a prison camp, serving as an example to others who might make the mistake of thinking freely or with morals. I can only remain in hiding for so long, with nobody left to trust. Even now, as I write in this journal, I think that I am growing anxious to hear the police knock on my door, so that I can finally know what my fate will be.

Class Notes 10/7

Major aims of the Nazis:

1. Germans want "Lebensraum," or living space (point 3)
   
2. Create a pure German race (point 4)
   
3. Indoctrination through education (point 20)
   
4. Re-militarize Germany (point 22)
   
5. Abolish the treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain (point 2)
   

HW 19

A. The Gestapo was the organization that served as Hitler's secret police force. Protective Custody refers to an order by which "enemies of the state" are sent to prison at concentration camps. Deaths Head Units were the branch of the SS that ran these concentration camps.

B. The people who were arrested as "enemies of the state" included Jews, people who opposed Hitler politically to various levels, people who are declared "work shy" (the example given suggests that this refers to people who turn down offers of unemployment relief), people who were part of the "Bibelforscher" (a religious group that refused to military service), homosexuals, and professional criminals.

C.1. Judging from the evidence in document B, the purposes of the concentration camps were to remove people who were potential threats to the Nazis from society and to punish these people for disagreeing with Nazi beliefs.
C.2. The prisoners were probably treated badly because they were members of groups that the Nazis disagreed with and had very little respect for, and because the SS had a large amount of freedom to do what they wanted.

Class Notes 10/6

• Hitler liked to have his rallies at night
• he often made a dramatic entrance
• usually stood there for a while before talking, tried to get the crowd anxious
• speeches would start off calm, gradually build up

Treatment of opposition- leader of the SA, (Ernst Roehm) was arrested on Hitler's orders and shot, because he wanted to merge the SA with the rest of the army, which would give him more power than Hitler
Enabling Law- Legal method used to maintain power, gave Hitler complete control over laws
Schuzstaffel, or SS, were Hitler's private guards, used to maintain power and deal with opposition
Hitler made people fear that communists would take over Germany (communist plot)
Night of the Long Knives- Hitler had the Shuzstaffel execute his opposition
SA (storm troopers)- Hitler's private army

HW 18

A. 1. Ludecke refers to slogans, posters, symbols (such as the swastika), loudspeakers, music, and radio.
A. 2. The people were probably excited about Hitler's arrival because of the extensive propaganda used by the Nazi party.
B. 1. He says that the SA men were carrying Nazi banners with pointed tips on them, and that the pointed out individuals and attacked them.
B. 2. Isherwood says that the SA moved very quickly in doing these things, and they probably also had a lot of political support.
B. 3. A novel like Goodbye to Berlin may not be entirely reliable, because the writer my have exaggerated certain points of his stories. However, it is valuable as it shows a certain view of contemporary events and gives us a better understanding of what kind of things happened during Hitler's rise to power.

Rise and Rule of Hitler Paper 2

Analyze the methods and conditions which helped in the rise to power of one ruler of a single-party state.

There were many factors that contributed to Hitlers rise to power in Germany. The most important of these were the unpleasant conditions facing Germany and the ways in which Hitler was able to use them to his advantage, becoming the ruler of a single-party state. The conditions mentioned include the large scale economic disaster and raised political tensions that followed the First World War. These issues had an overwhelmingly negative effect on the nation's stability, but Hitler managed to use this fact to convince the people that helping him gain power would be the only way to improve the situation.

Germany was struggling to deal with several economic problems in the 1920's and 1930's, when Hitler was starting to become a powerful political figure. The Treaty of Versailles, which had been signed at the end of World War I, was in many ways responsible for this. The treaty had caused Germany to lose much of its territory both inside and outside of Europe. Among the losses were valuable industrial areas, such as Alsace-Lorraine and the Rhineland, which were vital parts of Germany's economy. At the same time, France and Britain were forcing Germany to pay an incredible sum of money to them as reparations for the damages caused by the war, having blamed Germany for starting the entire conflict in the War Guilt Clause. As a result of suffering both of these punishments simultaneously, Germans were in a large amount of debt and had almost no way to pay it all off. The situation was worsened by the failure of America's banks. Germany was relying on loans taken out from American banks to pay off as much of its debt as it could, so when the economy of the United States fell apart Germany's economic disaster was worse than ever.

Hitler, recognizing that many people credited the Treaty of Versailles as the common cause of these economic issues, was able to use the treaty as a reason to blame certain groups of people for Germany's problems. He claimed that his country had been "stabbed in the back" by these groups, which included Jews, communists, and democrats, and that this was the reason that Germany lost World War I and was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. By establishing a widespread hatred of these groups throughout Germany, Hitler had effectively created a strong sense of nationalism, with the people being united by the popular belief that they had been wronged and that they deserved justice. Hitler promised that he would carry out that justice, ridding Germany of the people who had supposedly betrayed it.

Germany was also facing an increasing amount of political instability at the time. The settlement of the First World War had dismantled the nation's autocratic government and replaced it with a new, more democratic government, called the Weimar Republic. Unfortunately, Germany had never had any experience in running this type of democratic system, so it was not very successful in this attempt. There were too many political parties involved in the government, and each of these was to be represented proportionally, making it difficult to get anything done. In addition to this, Germany was forbidden from having an army of its own after losing the war. Instead of having a single national military force, individual political parties built up their own private armies, leading to increased political tensions and occasionally violent conflict.

Hitler found ways to use the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic to his advantage as well.* While the Weimar Republic was viewed by the people as being weak and unwilling to take action towards solving Germany's problems, the plan for Nazi Germany proposed by Hitler promised a powerful and active government, a contrast that appealed to many German voters. Hitler was also able to play on the fears people had about the other political parties. For example, he pointed out the communist revolution that Russia had experienced earlier and the problems it had caused there, stating that the same thing could easily happen to Germany if people supported the KPD. Finally, the Nazi party was a particularly militaristic group, having built up a strong private army. This aspect appealed to people who were seeking employment or were of the opinion that Germany needed to have an army.

It would be possible to argue that Hitler's rise to power was caused simply by either Germany's unstable condition or Nazi propaganda messages alone. However, it was how Hitler intertwined these two things that made him successful. He realized that people were unhappy with the state of their country, and he used propaganda that took advantage of this unhappiness to make people believe that he knew how to return Germany to its former glory.

*Stopped here in class