Stalin Review

1. One social condition that led to the rise of Stalin was the popularity of Marxism in Russia, which led to the Russian Revolution in 1917. A political condition was the power struggle between Lenin's potential successors; Stalin was able to gain the support of others who wanted to prevent Trotsky from coming to power in the event of Lenin's death.
2. Some of Stalin's aims included maintaining his own position of power, collectivizing Russia's economy, spreading Communism throughout the world, and defeating capitalism both locally and internationally. Also: improve industry in Russia (5 Year Plan)
   
3. Stalin was able to gain support from others who did not want Trotsky in power (either because they disliked him personally or disagreed with him politically). When Trotsky was no longer a threat, Stalin turned against the rightists who had been supporting him.
4. Totalitarianism was achieved to a great extent during Stalin's rule. Stalin had "unlimited authority" over the communist party even before Lenin's death and the elimination of Trotsky as a political threat. As Russia's leader, he was able to defeat any opposition through the use of fear and propaganda, and had the power to turn his people against the wealthier peasants (kulaks) in order to proceed with collectivization.
5. One legal method Stalin used in order to maintain his power was the creation of show trials. These were faked trials for people who had already had their fates determined by the government, designed to discourage the public from opposing Stalin. He also used censorship to indoctrinate the people, making sure that writers and artists were watched carefully and forced to join certain unions. (Also- including women in the work force, changing education)
   
6. Two examples of force under Stalin's rule was the use of secret police known as the NKVD and the establishment of Gulags, areas in which prisoners were kept and forced to do labor. (Also- collectivization, 5 Year Plan)
7. Stalin's ideology as a leader seems to have been based almost entirely around the goal of maintaining his own position of power. Because of this, it was his priority to eliminate any possible opposition he might have faced, rather than to work together with others in order to improve Russia.
8. Throughout his rise and rule, Stalin generally focused on eliminating groups and people that might be threats to him in the future instead of waiting for threats to appear unexpectedly. Examples include Trotsky during Stalin's rise, and the kulaks during his rule. One major exception to this was the external threat of Hitler during World War II. Stalin realized that Germany and Russia would eventually go to war, but he did not take any preemptive aggressive actions against Hitler.
9. The Soviet government was controlled by Stalin and a small group of his closest allies, who controlled the nation largely through the use of fear and propaganda. Some of the people within the Communist party disagreed with Stalin, but Stalin and his allies were usually able to control them with purges.
10. Stalin was determined to keep the Soviet Union together, despite the nationalist wishes of some members to become independent countries. He also did his best to make the USSR a totalitarian single-party state under the Communist Party.
11. Stalin achieved the collectivization of agriculture, which was both a social and economic goal, by 1936. He also effectively indoctrinated the people of Russia, resulting in the creation of a cult of personality.
12. Because some priests opposed collectivization, Stalin ordered local party groups to attack priests and churches. The number of working priests dropped from about 60,000 to about 6,000, and only one in 40 churches were left functioning. People began to replace their old religions with worship of Stalin and the Communist Party.
13. Stalin greatly expanded education between the years of 1929 and 1931. This was an efficient way for Stalin to indoctrinate children, teaching them to become good communists.
    
14. Stalin used the arts for propaganda purposes, using them to portray communism as good and capitalism as evil.
    
15. Stalin used the media and propaganda as a method of eliminating his opposition; he was able to convince people that certain groups were enemies of the state, and that everybody should play their part in defeating those groups.
16. Women in Russia were often involved in work, as opposed to Germany, where woman were encouraged to focus on supporting their families at home.
17. Stalin had many religious groups and minorities purged as enemies of the Communist Party.
    

In Class Assignment 3

Source Analysis:

A. The document does reflect Wilson's belief in "peace without victory," quoting his statement which said that the peace settlement for WWI must be "justice that plays no favorites." However, the document also reflects how Wilson changed his mind by the end of the war, when he "demanded that Germany be punished."

B. Britain's aims were much less vengeful than those of France, being focused mostly on achieving peace rather than on punishing Germany. While France made demands to divide Germany further than it already had been, Britain disagreed, thinking that making extreme decisions in a peace settlement might simply lead to another war.

C. 1. France primarily wanted revenge and compensation for its losses during the war, and assurance that a similar war would never happen again.
C. 2. France thought that the best way to achieve its goals was to cripple Germany as much as possible. To do this, France wanted to limit Germany's military and to make sure that it stayed away from France's border. It also wanted to take away most of Germany's wealth.

D. 1. Japan and Italy wanted to maximize their war-time gains, mostly in terms of territory. For example, Italy wanted the port of Fiume, while Japan wanted to keep the territories it gained in China.
D.2. Countries such as the USA, China, and Britain would oppose these claims.

Gas Warfare

1. In World War I, the use of chemical weapons was an expected act of war, in contrast to the completely unexpected act of genocide by Saddam Hussein against the Kurds in 1987 and 1988. Also, the gas seems to have been distributed in different ways, with the Germans relying on wind to carry clouds of gas while Saddam Hussein used warplanes to bomb Kurds with chemical weapons.
2. The goal of the Iraqi forces seems to have been the genocide of the Kurds in northern Iraq. In World War I, the Germans were using gas as an instrument of making progress in the war, rather than for simply killing as many people as possible.
3. The use of chemical weapons was generally not approved of internationally after the First World War.
4. Gas is effective in that it can often be deadly and is able to break up or disable large groups of people. However, it can be unreliable, because it can not be controlled very well after it is released. It seems to be much less humane than other weapons, because it kills people slowly and painfully and can have long term effects on survivors.
   

In Class Assignment 1

With reference to origin and purpose, assess the values and limits of charts 1-6 for historians studying the causes of WWI.

Charts 1 through 6, published in the UK in 1988, offer information about the industrial and military capabilities of eight different countries that participated in the First World War. These charts are valuable in that they provide specific numbers for various statistics regarding each country. This could give historians an idea of the economic causes of the war, in addition to pointing out a global increase in military power in the time leading up to World War I. However, this does not give any indication of which countries are competing with each other and which are allied, and the charts do not say why the numbers changed in the way that is shown.

Russian Revolution Notes (from last year)

1905 Revolution

• autocracy- country is governed as the ruler sees fit
  
• Russo - Japanese War- Japan won
  
• Economic problems
• minimal industrialization
• periodic famine- caused people to become difficult to control
  
• permanent underclass (serfs/peasants)

Weaknesses of the regime

• Failure of land reforms
• Industrial unrest
• Government oppression
• Revolutionary parties
• Bolsheviks- "communist" party
  
• Mensheviks- wanted Russia to be fully industrialized
  
• Social Revolutionaries
• Royal family scandal- Rasputin in the royal court
  
• WWI
  

Which of these problems was the most significant? Least Significant?
The First World War was probably the most significant of these things, because of the damage it caused to Russia's population and resources. The royal family scandal may have been the least significant, having less of an impact on the country as a whole.

Poor living conditions, weak leadership, and conflicting political parties all seem to be conditions which may lead to the establishment of single-party states.

• In Russia, these conditions were added to government oppression, periodic famine, and the loss of the Russo - Japanese War.
• In Germany, these conditions were added to the Treaty of Versailles and French occupation.
  

Two Revolutions:

• February Revolution
• bread riots- started revolution
  
• factory workers- went on strike, joined the riots
  
• troops- refused to shoot at unarmed crowds, mutinied
  
• Tsar's response- sent more troops to Petrograd, ignoring suggestions to set up a constitutional monarchy
  
• Abdication- The Tsar renounced the throne to his brother, who refused, causing the monarchy to fall apart
  
• Provisional government- what was it and why did it fail?
• June (July) offensive- caused the collapse of the army's morale and discipline
• Power sharing- the government shared power with the committee known as the Petrograd soviet, which gained control over the army
  
• broken promises- delayed elections and no land reform caused the government to lose support
  
• Lenin's return
• economic crisis
• "July days"
• Kornilov affair
• Bolsheviks seize power
  

Tsar Nicholas could not govern 125 million people by himself, so he employed thousands of civil servants (people who permanently work for the state).

Secret police called the Okhrana, or "Protective Section", censored books/newspapers and spied on political parties, arresting people who criticized the government.

Peasants sometimes revolted during famines, so the Tsar sent in Cossacks, mounted soldiers, to break up the crowds.

4 of every 5 Russians were peasants.

Redemption payments- peasants had to pay for the land given to the commune in yearly installments for 49 years.

Low life expectancy made it unlikely that peasants would live long enough to pay off their redemption payments. Children rarely lived past the age of 5.

Peasants < Capitalists < Army < Clergy < Royal Family

High unemployment, very crowded housing

1% of the Russian population was made up of nobles, who owned about 25% of the land

The Tsar owned 8 palaces and employed about 15,000 servants to work in them.

World War I

• Russians were poorly equipped and had bad leadership
• In 6 weeks, over 250,000 Russians were killed, wounded or taken prisoner
• Not enough workers during the war, so factories had to be closed
• There were not enough trains to keep everyone supplied with food and materials
• Inflation caused Russian money to lose value, while food prices went up
• The Tsar left Russia during the war, leaving the Tsarina and Rasputin in charge of the country, they do an even worse job of leading
• Thousands of workers go on strike in Petrodgrad
• Bread riots begin
• Cossacks refused to attack strikers, joined the riots
• Parliament creates a Provisional Committee- temporary government set up until a real government could be decided on, claims to have legal authority
  
• Petrograd Soviet- council of workers and soldiers in Petrograd, claims to have practical authority
• Tsar quickly loses power and support, gives up his position
• Order No. 1 said that soldiers and sailors needed to set up committees to take control of all arms, ammunition, and equipment. It also said that off-duty soldiers should not salute their officers, and that they should address them as "Mister Colonel," or "Mister General." This was obeyed by the entire army and navy, showing that the Petrograd Soviet controlled the country's military.
• Lenin's April Thesis: the war with Germany must end, all land must be given to the peasants, banks must be nationalized, the Bolsheviks should be called "Communists," and no support should be given to the Provisional Government.
• Summer Offensive- In June 1917 the Russian armies made a major attack on Austria. The offensive failed, and many Russians were killed while others deserted and joined the Bolsheviks.
• Kornilov revolt- the Bolsheviks arrested Kornilov, saving the Provisional Government.
• Provisional Government began to quickly lose power; chaos
  
• Leningrad, who had been chased back out of the country, returns again to lead the revolution
• Sovnarkom- the new organization leading Russia
  
• Decree on land- gave land to peasants
• Decree on peace- Sovnarkom intended to make peace with Russia's enemies at once
• The Cheka was set up as a political police force

Constituent Assembly: Russia's new parliament in 1917
Democracy- everyone votes on everything
Representative democracy- Everyone votes for representatives who vote for everything
Republic- a state without a monarch
Federal- a system where there is a joint national government and a smaller regional government
Capitalism- Private citizens own/control the means of production
Socialism- Government owns and controls means of production
Communism- the people colectively own/control the means of production
Autocracy- Rule is through one leader
Monarchy- Rule is hereditary
Oligarchy- Rule by a small group
Theocracy- Rule by a religious leader

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk- harsh treaty between Russia and Germany. Russia had to give up all its Western lands, losing people, farm land, railways, iron ore

Class Notes 3/29

Causes of Gulf War I / Iraq's invasion of Kuwait (1990-1991)

Political Causes:

• Personal ambitions of Saddam Hussein - desire to be the leader of the Arab world, desire for power
• Poor WWI settlements (specifically the mandate system) help cause a border dispute between Iraq and Kuwait (different interpretation, long term cause)
• The United States should have warned Saddam Hussein not to invade Kuwait (another interpretation)

Economic Causes:

• Kuwait waging economic warfare on Iraq (over-pricing oil, reducing Iraq's oil revenue)
• The United States did not want one man/country to have control over 20% of the world's oil supply
• If Saddam conquered Saudi Arabia, Iraq would control approximately 50% of the world's oil

USA, Saudi Arabia lead a United Nations effort to expel Hussein from Kuwait

August 3, 1990- USSR + USA agree to work together against Iraq.

Question: Is this the day the Cold War ended and the War on Terror began?

The United Nations fully supported the USA leading a military force to liberate Kuwait.

UN Security council voted unanimously to support action against Iraq.

Practices

• Over 500,000 US soldiers assembled
• Massive air campaign lasts from January 17 to February 23, causing Iraqis to surrender by the thousands by the time the ground war started.
• Three phases of air war: gain air superiority, shatter Saddam's army and weapons capability, soften up Saddam's forces for a ground attack
  

Class Notes 3/26

Social Effects

• 1,000,000 dead
• 400,000 Iraqis, 500,000 - 600,000 Iranians
• Iran and Iraq still hate each other
• Continuing religious conflict between Shi'ite and Sunni Muslims
• Kurds in the North hate Saddam Hussein after gas attacks in 1988
• Hatred by Iran toward the USA ("Great Satan"), which supported Iraq in the war and shot down an Iranian passenger plane (290 dead)

Economic Effects

• Both economies destroyed
• Iraq $70 billion in debt
• Iran increases trade with USSR

Political/Foreign Policy Effects

• No major territorial changes
• Saddam Hussein and Ayatollah Khomeini remain in power
• Iraq invades Kuwait on August 2, 1990, hoping to regain lost wealth and control Kuwait's oil resources
• Beginning of a strong US military presence in the Persian Gulf region (1987-2010)
• Iran and Russia/USSR develop closer relations
  
• Iran gains nuclear technology from Russia
  

Class Notes 3/27

Both Iran and Iraq use religion to inspire soldiers

• Martyrdom is promised to all soldiers
• Iranian keys to heaven and "warriors of god" (red headbands)
• November of 1980- Saddam Hussein declares the war a jihad
• Kuwait loans Iraq $40 billion to prevent the spread of radical Islam
• The US sides with Iraq for (partly) similar reasons
• Iranians carry their own coffins to the front
• Iranians recruit teenagers to clear minefields (compare to Hitler Youth/Kamikaze pilots)

Naval Warfare

• The United States works indirectly with Iraq to blockade Iran and protect oil tankers in the Persian Gulf
• American flags were put on Kuwaiti oil tankers to protect them
• 1987- USS Stark is accidentally hit by a missile from an Iraqi aircraft
  
• 1988- US accidentally shot down an Iranian passenger jet (290 died)
• The Persian Gulf was mined

Iraqis use poison gas

• Basra in 1986 vs. Iranian army- Iraq lures Iran into a kill zone and releases mustard gas
• 1988 in Northern Iraq- Kurdish uprising, Hussein quells the rebellion with mustard gas, 5,000 civilians dead

Aerial Bombing

• Both sides bombed capital cities (Iran- Tehran, Iraq- Baghdad)
  

Class Notes 3/24

Causes

• Personal ambition of Saddam Hussein
• Saddam's desire to be the most powerful leader in the Arab world
  

Practices

• Blitzkrieg- Iraq attacks across a 500 mile front. Tanks (Soviet-made) support infantry, MIG fighters (Soviet-made) hit military targets and oil facilities
  
• Iraq seizes the Al-Faw Peninsula and parts of Khuzestan
• The war turns into a stalemate + war of attrition
• Iraq uses poison gas
• Bombing cities
• Both sides make the conflict a jihad (a holy war)
• All soldiers (both sides) who die in war are promised a spot in paradise
  

HW 9

Causes of World War I

• Imperialism: European nations (Germany, France, Britain) competed for land and colonies.
• Miscalculation: Germany believed that with the Schlieffen Plan they would be able to quickly win the war.
• Revolution: Serbia/Austria-Hungary, assassination of the archduke
• Alliances: European countries allied with each other

Causes of the Iran-Iraq War

• Imperialism: Saddam Hussein attempted to unite the Arab world under his rule
• Miscalculation: Hussein believed that attacking Iran during the chaos that followed Iran's revolution in 1979 would give him an easy victory (expected a two-week war)
  
• Revolution: Iranians overthrow the Shah two different times (once in 1953 and again in 1979)
• Religion: Shi'ite Muslims in Iran, Sunni Muslims in Iraq
• Cold War: USA and USSR both had large parts in arming Iran and Iraq in the years leading up to the Iran-Iraq War.
  

Class Notes 3/22

1979- Saddam Hussein becomes dictator of Iraq until 2003

• Baath Party

1953- Iranians overthrow the Shah, set up a democracy

• US restores the Shah back to power. The Shah rules until 1979.

1979- Shah of Iran is overthrown a second time

• Set up Islamic Republic
• Iran is a theocracy (religious government)
• Took 33 Americans hostage
• Ayatollah Khomeini becomes leader of Iran

1980- Saddam Hussein invades Iran

• Believes Iraq will have an easy victory due to the chaos following Iran's revolution
• May have been a miscalculation- the war lasted 8 years with over a million deaths (about 300,000 Iraqis and 500,000+ Iranians) and no territory gained
• Desire to become dominant ruler in the Arab world
• Unite the Arab world
  

China Paper 2 (Part 2)

5. Evaluate the domestic policies of Mao.

Economic:

• Collectivization
• 5 Year Plan/Great Leap Forward

Social:

• Hundred Flowers
• Cultural Revolution

The domestic policies of China were changed dramatically under Mao Zedong after his rise to power in 1949. Some of the most notable of these changes were caused by new economic policies, such as collectivization and the use of "Five Year Plans," both of these being methods that had been used earlier in history by the leaders of Soviet Russia in order to improve their economy. Other important domestic policies included Mao's "Hundred Flowers" policy and the Cultural Revolution, methods used by Mao seemingly for the purpose of purifying China's Communist Party and keeping its leader in power.

Mao seems to have borrowed much of his economic policy from the USSR. When Mao established the People's Republic of China in 1949 after the Chinese Civil War, one of his highest domestic priorities was to collectivize the nation's agriculture. This meant that, rather than peasants owning smaller, individual farms, large groups of peasants would join together to share a much larger collectivized farm to work on. In order to carry out this type of land reform, Mao had to take the land needed for collectivized farms from wealthy landowners. This was done largely through class warfare, in which Mao used propaganda to encourage the country's less wealthy peasants to rise against landowners and take their farms, often violently. It is important for historians to note that this was very similar to Stalin's Great Terror, in which Stalin attempted to collectivize Russia's agriculture by turning the lower class against the more powerful farmers and landowners known as kulaks, so that collective farms, or kolkhozy, could be formed. The actual process of collectivization was very successful under Mao's leadership, but it is unclear how effective the policy was economically, due to the large amount of propaganda surrounding the topic. Regardless of this, collectivization was clearly unable to succeed when faced with the famines that occurred from 1958 to 1961, which are sometimes referred to as "the Bitter Years."

Another domestic policy adopted by Mao was the use of Five Year Plans, also used by Russia. The idea of this policy was to set a number of specific economic goals to be achieved within a period of five years. One of these plans, which Mao called the Great Leap Forward, began in 1958 with the ending year being 1963. In this time, Mao set goals for China's industry and agriculture that many historians today see as unrealistic. The reasoning behind Mao's apparent confidence in this plan was that China's vast population alone would be enough to turn the nation into a modern industrial state, removing the need for experts in this matter. In reality, however, this was plan was clearly flawed, and as a result it was devastating to China's economy, as well as its people. There was a particularly emphasized focus on steel production, which was set as a priority even over the production of food. Peasants, unwilling to disobey Mao for fear of being labeled "rightists" or "reactionaries," were force to work hard for long periods of time doing their best to produce steel. However, due to the lack of experts working on this, the steel was produced inefficiently. Meanwhile, the country's agricultural situation was constantly worsening. Because peasants were exhausted by their work on improving China's industry, there were very few people left able to work on the fields. For this reason, many people today cite the Great Leap Forward as the cause of the famines that occurred during the Bitter Years.

• Hundred Flowers: Mao encouraged the people to speak their minds about China, but labeled them as reactionaries and arrested them when they spoke against him, the government, or communism.
• Cultural Revolution: Mao encouraged certain groups, such as China's youth and students, to start a revolution against teachers and certain government leaders who he felt were turning to capitalism. It could be said that this was an attempt by Mao to maintain his own power.
  

China Paper 2

2. Assess the social and economic causes of the Chinese Civil War.

While there was certainly a number of important economic causes that must be considered when studying the Chinese Civil War, the conflict seems to have been primarily caused by the social reactions of the Chinese people to the events occurring in the world around them. Economic conditions within China led to unrest among the people, while social changes throughout the entire world caused the people to reconsider their traditional values and ideals.

One long-term economic cause of the Chinese Civil War was the influence on China by foreign nations. In the beginning of the twentieth century, many Western countries, such as Britain, France, and the United States, had gained a large amount of economic control over various areas in China. These areas became known as "spheres of influence," because of the influence that these nations had over the economy in the areas they controlled. The Manchu dynasty, which ruled China at the time, allowed this to happen, accepting foreign influence on the country. This resulted in the spreading of Western culture, often in terms of business and religion. Many people, feeling a strong sense of nationalism, were unhappy with how the Manchu dynasty let this international economic situation dominate China.

Multiple movements against the government took place because of this, including the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 and the Revolution of 1911, which finally deposed the Manchus from power. The reason for this being a cause of the Chinese Civil War is the lack of unity after the downfall of the Manchus; numerous factions thought that they could do a better job of governing China than the Manchus did, but there was little agreement between these groups regarding which one should take control. The two most important groups were the Communists and the Nationalists, or Guomindang, which were the combatants during the civil war that followed.

One major social cause of the Chinese Civil War was the Russian Revolution in 1917. This conflict was very similar in many ways to the one that took place in China. The people of Russia were unhappy with their Tsarist government and the influence of capitalist values on their country, and so a large number of them adopted the new social ideology of Marxism. These people started a revolution against the government, overthrowing the Tsar and establishing a communist government under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. The idea of Communism spread to China after the Manchu dynasty was overthrown and the country was ruled largely by warlords and by Sun Yatsen's Guomindang. In 1922, the Chinese Communist Party was founded, with the hopes of changing the social structure of China in the same way that it was changed in Russia.

Another economic cause of the war was the May 4th Movement, which occurred in 1919. During the First World War, China lost the port of Kiaochow to Germany, and then to Japan. Kiaochow was an important area to China's trade. After the war, when land was being redistributed in the Treaty of Versailles, China had expected Kiaochow to be returned by Japan. However, the port was left in Japan's ownership, causing China to protest. The protests known as the May 4th Movement included boycotts against Japan, which increased tension between the two countries leading up to World War II, in which Japan invaded China again, this time attacking Manchuria. This may seem to be a relatively indirect cause, but it served to divide China further on the issue of interacting with Japan and with other foreign nations.

• New Tide- social movement with a focus on modern ideas such as freedom and equal rights, as well as on the elimination of old fashioned ideas.
  
• Counterclaim that the May 4th Movement and the influence of foreign nations could be seen as social causes, while the Russian Revolution was an economic cause in some ways

Sorry, I wrote what I could of my first essay in about 1 hour and 10 minutes, but I ran out of time preparing for Model UN. I will finish the Paper 2 as soon as possible.

Paper 1 Practice

7. In Source A, Deng Xiaoping is discussing the state of China’s economy in 1962 and how he thought it could be improved at that time. Historians studying the Great Leap Forward might consider this to be very valuable as a primary source; there are specific numbers for the amounts of grain produced in different years, and the weather that helped cause a major food shortage and famine is mentioned. However, it is very likely that this source is twisting the truth in some ways in order to make Mao’s regime look better. The aforementioned numbers may have been exaggerated, and the changes caused by the Great Leap Forward to not seem to be considered as a factor in the decrease in food production.

Source B offers a different interpretation of the Great Leap Forward than what many historians believe. The author states that Mao’s strategy was not entirely faulty, but that it was carried out ineffectively. This is a relatively recent source, and it is evident that the author has reviewed other interpretations of this event considered them when writing his own opinion. This source may be limited by the fact that it was not written by a person who actually experienced the Great Leap Forward. It is also possible that some of the data he has relied on has been manipulated by the Chinese government.

8. Source D appears to be correct in claiming that the Great Leap Forward “proved an unmitigated disaster for the Chinese economy and people.” Whether the Great Leap Forward failed because of unrealistic ideals or because of poor implementation, it was entirely unsuccessful and it failed to maintain China during a few particularly difficult years.

Mao’s reliance on large numbers peasants and insistence on neglecting the use of experts was one important cause of this disaster, while the focus on industry, specifically steel production, was not helpful either. Because of these things, peasants were overworked and were unable to efficiently produce food, and because of their lack of industrial knowledge, they were not able to produce steel as effectively as experts might have been able to.

Mao’s plan failed to survive the unfortunate weather conditions that afflicted China. Droughts and floods destroyed what little food the peasants were able to produce, resulting in a famine that killed nearly 20 million people.

Class Notes 3/12

Cultural Revolution:

• Mao purged enemies, similar to Stalin's Great Terror
• Mao tried to "purify" the communist party, in order to avoid repeating Capitalism or being like the Nationalists.
• People were arrested for criticizing Mao's wife
• China considered both the United States and USSR to be imperialists and threats
• Russia was seen as the bigger threat, so China tried to talk to the US (President Nixon's visit to China)
  

Class Notes 3/9

Treatment of Opposition:

• People who spoke against Mao were often called "Rightists"
• Rightists were arrested and forced to do hard labor
• China shelled the Nationalists on Taiwan. Kruschev was not happy about this, because it could have caused a superpower war between Russia and the United States. Russia cut off its relations with China in 1960.
• Mao restricted Tibetans' freedom of religion, kicked out the Dalai Lama
  

Totalitarianism:

• Terror: The people of China were afraid of disobeying Mao, so they agreed to follow his economic policies during the Great Leap Forward.
• Even some of the most important Communist officials felt disconnected from Mao.
  

Propaganda:

• Communes competed with each other in order produce the most grain. They often made up information to make people think that they were producing more grain than they actually were. For example, some faked pictures showed grain that was so thick that it could support the weight of children.
• Mao did not let people know about the famine during the Bitter Years (1959-62). He did not allow peasants to go to different communes.
  

HW 7

1. Mao's aims included turning China into a modern industrial state, gaining the support of the people, eliminating his opposition, and collectivizing agriculture.
   
2. Mao tried to use 5-Year Plans similar to what was done in the USSR in order to industrialize his country, setting certain economic goals to reach within 5 year periods. To gain the support of China's people, Mao introduced his "100 Flowers" policy, which encouraged everyone to say what they thought of their nation. Mao also eliminated much of his opposition, labeling those who disagreed with him as "reactionaries" and punishing them. Collectivization, another major aim of Mao's regime, was achieved through land reform, which redistributed land from wealthier people and landowners to groups of peasants.
   
3. Mao's 5-Year Plans were a legal method of achieving his economic aims, as were his land reform laws. However, he also used force in some cases, arresting people who spoke against his government through the 100 Flowers policy, and having many landowners killed in order to make land reform easier.
   
4. The Great Leap Forward was in some ways a cause of the Three Bitter Years that China experienced. In his attempt to industrialize China as quickly as possible, Mao took too many people away from agricultural work, causing the amount of food produced to decrease. This made China less prepared to deal with the floods and droughts that occurred afterward.
   
5. Mao's 100 Flowers policy seemed to be a form of propaganda, giving the people of China the illusion that their opinions were considered by the government. Mao's apology regarding the failure of the Great Leap Forward could be interpreted similarly; one could say that Mao was showing more care for his people than he actually had. A third example of propaganda is how Mao turned China's lower class peasants against the land owners during his attempts at collectivization.
   

Class Notes 3/8

Great Leap Forward 1958-63 (China's Second 5-Year Plan)

• Example of a high level of totalitarianism (Mao had a lot of control)
  

Aims

• Industrialize China as quickly as possible
• Produce a food surplus
• Create a modern industrial economy to compete with the USSR and the capitalist West

Formation of Communes

• A method of increasing government control (Communist Party controlled decisions)
• By 1958, 90% of the population had been placed into 26,578 communes

Paper 1 Practice 3/5

"Mao's use of terror and propaganda were his most effective methods of winning support of the peasants and common people." To what extent do you agree with this claim?

This claim is largely accurate; Mao made very effective use of propaganda and terror during his rise to power in China, with propaganda being particularly helpful toward achieving the goal of gaining the support of the common people. Source A points out that life in Communist controlled "liberation areas" was very appealing to peasants who lived in Guomindang China, because the news had spread that the Communists gave their people more freedom and abandoned certain unpleasant traditions such as forced marriages and the murder of unwanted children. This source also shows an example of Communist propaganda, portraying peasants working together to help the Red Army fight Japan. The fact the Communists seemed to support the idea of war with Japan while the Nationalists did not made many people side with the Communists.

Source B seems to argue that it was Mao's economic policy, specifically his methods of land reform, that gained the support of many peasants. A counterclaim to this might be that it was not the land reform itself, but rather Mao's promises of successful land reform in contrast with the poor economic policies of the Nationalists, that appealed to peasants, making this another example of the use of propaganda.

Source C states that "Mao's most formidable weapon was pitilessness," supporting the claim that terror had a large role in increasing Mao's support. The use of terror was very effective at decreasing opposition to the Communists, because Mao was ruthless with his enemies. However, it was not as effective as propaganda in terms of actually gaining the support of the peasants.

Causes, Practices, and Effects of the Chinese Civil War Assessment

Explain two major political causes of the Chinese Civil War.

One major political cause of the Chinese Civil War was the downfall of the Manchu dynasty, which ruled China until 1912. Many Chinese people saw the Manchus as being weak, because they had let China become heavily influenced by foreign nations and cultures. Several Western countries had established spheres on influence in China, where they had large amounts of economic control. In addition to this, Christianity was spreading very quickly in the area. The fact that the Manchus had allowed all of this to happen caused multiple revolutions, such as the Boxer Rebellion and the Revolution of 1911. Certain groups of people felt that they could do a better job ruling China than the Manchus did. The contest for power between these groups after the Manchu dynasty collapsed was an important cause of the civil war that followed.

Another political cause was the Russian Revolution, which started in 1917. This revolution occurred due to the increasing popularity of communism, with major leaders in the movement including Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin. The communist party in Russia began a violent revolution against the tsarist dictatorship that ruled over them. The events that happened in China seem to have been inspired by this revolution in some ways. The political, social, and economic ideals of the Soviet Union eventually reached China, resulting in the formation of the Chinese Communist Party in 1922. This party became one of the two major factions that would fight in the Chinese Civil War, with the other being the Nationalists led by dictator Chiang Kaishek.

Analyze three strategies or tactics that were most helpful in the Communists winning the Chinese Civil War.

The three strategies that were most helpful to the Communists were the use of guerrilla warfare, attempts to gain the support of the common people of China, and the use of assistance from Russia. Using guerrilla warfare against the Guomindang was largely Mao's idea. The communists used indirect tactics, such as leading Nationalists into their territory where they could be ambushed or isolated from help and supplies. They would also lead raids on the Nationalists at night and destroy any infrastructure that might help their enemies. This was essential to the Communist victory, because the Guomindang had a much larger and better equipped military, so the Communists likely would have been defeated if they attacked Chiang Kaishek's forces head-on.

The Communists also ensured that they received the support of China's peasants. They took advantage of the fact that peasants were being mistreated by the Nationalists by improving conditions for them ending traditional practices like arranged marriages and by effectively using propaganda in the form of artwork to convince the people that the Nationalists were cruel and corrupt while the Communists were willing to work together for the common good. Gaining the support of peasants greatly increased the size of the People's Liberation Army, giving it a good chance of successfully attacking the Guomindang directly.

Despite the importance of the above strategies, some historians argue that assistance from Soviet Russia was the most important factor of the Communists' victory. Russia sent help to the Chinese Communist Party in the form of spies and military advisors. Spies gathered intelligence from the Nationalists to give to the Communists, while advisors like Otto Braun provided knowledge of strategies and tactics that could be used against the Guomindang.

Explain two major political effects of the Chinese Civil War.

One major political effect of the Chinese Civil War was the alliance that was formed between Russia and China during the Cold War. When the Communists won the civil war in 1949, they set up the government known as the People's Republic of China, which shared some policies and ideals with the USSR. Because of this, when tensions increased between Communism and the West, China and Russia agreed to help each other, signing a Mutual Aid Treaty in 1950.

Similarly to how Communism spread from Russia to China, it also began to spread from China to the rest of Asia. The United States saw this as a major threat, and so it adopted a policy of containment, meaning that it would try to stop the spread of Communism throughout the world at all costs. This resulted in multiple wars, including the Korean War and the Vietnam War.

Explain two major economic effects of the Chinese Civil War.

The fighting that took place during the Chinese Civil War caused much of China's infrastructure to be damaged, which had a very negative effect on the nation's economy. Inflation was a large part of this, with the price of food increasing greatly beyond what it had been in the past. In an attempt to improve the economic situation, the People's Liberation Army was put to work repairing infrastructure such as bridges and railways.

Another economic effect of the war was the implementation of collective farming among peasant communities. This was very similar to what was done by other communist leaders, such as Stalin. Rather than giving land to individual peasants, land was taken away from wealthier peasants and land owners to be shared and farmed by groups of peasants collectively.

Test Review

2 Political Causes

• Russian Revolution
• Downfall of the Manchu Dynasty

2 Social Causes

• Rise of Chinese nationalism
• New Tide
  

3 Strategies that helped the Communists win

• Guerrilla Warfare (Long March)
  
• Aid from Russians (Advisors like
  
• Getting the support of civilians
  

2 Political Effects

• Russia and China form an alliance in the Cold War
• Communism spreads through Asia, causing the West to adopt a policy of containment
  

2 Economic Effects

• Land reform/collectivization
  
• The PLA is put to work rebuilding China's infrastructure

Class Work 2/26

Aims of Mao

• Unite China under a single government and maintain control
  
• Gain support from the USSR (1950 Treaty of Mutual Aid and Assistance)
  
• Rebuild China (improve conditions in order to maintain support of the peasants/common people)
• Improve industry/industrialize China
  
• Improve agriculture
• Maintain power

To what extent was a single party dictator successful in achieving his aims?

Mao's Methods

• 1950 Marriage Law- no arranged/child marriages, no killing of female babies, joint ownership of property, maternity benefits (full wages for two months after the birth of a child)
• Agrarian Reform Law- redistribution of land, people were classified as landlords, rich peasants, middle peasants, or poor peasants, took land from the wealthy and gave it to the poor, "speak bitterness" meetings (peasants speak against landlords, 2-4 million landlords were killed)
  

Effects of the Chinese Civil War (HW 5)

Political

• 1949 - Nationalists form a government in Taiwan (still exists today)
• 1949 - People's Republic of China (PRC) was formed (inherited the corruption left behind by the Nationalists)
• China becomes a single party state
• PRC forms an alliance with USSR during the Cold War, is immediately isolated by the West (Treaty of Mutual Aid & Assistance- 1950, USSR gives China advisors and credits)
• Fear and suspicion from USA + West about the spread of communism (1945-1991, United States opposes expansion of communism in Asia, containment policy)
• Wars in Korea (1950-1952) and Vietnam (1965-1975)
• Mao Zedong becomes the leader of the PRC (1949-1976)
  
• The PLA is put to work rebuilding China/infrastructure (a method Mao uses to unite China)

Economic

• Infrastructure (bridges, railways, dams, canals, farms) was destroyed
• Food shortages
• Inflation
• High unemployment
• June 1950 Land Reform Law (Mao's domestic policy)

Social

• Land reform
• Collectivization
• Peasants Associations
  
• People who opposed the Communists were labeled as "reactionaries" and treated very strictly by the government
• Equality given to women
• Free speech/political rights taken away from reactionaries/nationalists
• Strikes (1945-49)
  

HW 4

1. The Communists made use of their territory; they were fighting on land that was familiar to them, so they were able to take advantage of it for guerrilla attacks. They were also able to convince the population to do what they wanted. Civilians helped the Communists by keeping their resources away from the Guomindang, and many even joined the Communists' army. A third reason for the success of the Communists was the aid they received from Russia, which helped them by setting up a Military Advisory Group.

2. This source suggests that foreign aid from Russia was the most important strategy that "tipped the scale" so that the Communists could defeat the Nationalists. Russia supplied the Chinese Communists with information and gave them advice about military tactics.

3. The sources all seem to agree that guerrilla warfare was a very important part of the Communists' victory. However, Jung Chang's view seems to be that Mao took such tactics to unnecessary levels, using terror in order to defeat the Guomindang. Jung Chang also puts a greater emphasis on the importance of Russian assistance.

4. The GRU was the organization responsible for Soviet military intelligence. CCP refers to the Chinese Communist Party. HQ means headquarters, likely referring to that of Chiang Kaishek, which was infiltrated by Russian spies.

5. It could be argued that Russia had a more important role in leadership than Mao did. According to Jung Chang, the advice and intelligence provided by the Soviets were what allowed Mao to lead his soldiers effectively in the first place.

6. This source claims that the Nationalists were more patriotic in fighting the Japanese, and that history has been rewritten to make the Communists look better.

7. Based on the other sources I have read, I do not believe the above claim. Other sources provided examples of Communist propaganda supporting the war against Japan, while this source offers no evidence to support the idea that the Nationalists were in fact the ones who wanted to form a united front.

8. This source says that the Japanese invasion helped Mao rise to power because the Nationalists suspended their war with the Communists in order to defend their country from Japan.

Chapter 11 Questions

A.

• After World War 2, the Communists were more spread out through China, and so they were able to gain control over the areas that had been taken by Japan more quickly than the Guomindang.
• The Communists' "People's Liberation Army" used guerrilla tactics (destroying railways, raiding Guomindang bases at night, ambushing patrols)
• The Guomindang was unable to maintain the support of the people, causing many of them to join the Communists.
• According to Chiang Kaishek, Guomindang soldiers were not disciplined enough.
• The Communists were flexible and willing to change strategies.
• The Communists fought very carefully, avoiding major battles that they could not win.
  
• The People's Liberation Army expanded very quickly, gaining more support with every success. It was eventually able to fight the Guomindang head-on, rather than through the use of guerrilla tactics.
  
• Corruption and poor economic management under the Nationalists caused peasants to join the Communists.
• America cut off all aid to China in 1947.
  

B.1. Chiang Kaishek felt that his followers were unprincipled and undisciplined, and that this was causing the Guomindang to lose the war.
B.2. The Guomindang did not seem to think ahead, causing them to lose land to the Communists after World War II. Also, the Guomindang did not seem to efficiently use its resources- it had many more weapons, soldiers, and supplies than the Communists, but it was unsuccessful in using them.

In Class Work 2/12

1. The woodcut on page 22 shows Guomindang officers taking animals and food from a house. The miserable appearances of the family in the house suggests that life under Chiang Kaishek's regime would be terrible. This would make becoming a communist much more appealing to the Chinese people; people who were aware of the communists' ideology might have believed that such things would never happen in a communist country, where everybody would work together and share their food and animals with each other.
2. The Chinese Communist Party poster on page 23 shows the communists ideology of peasants working together collectively, an image which may have gained the support of China's peasant population. It also shows that the goal of this cooperation was to assist the Red Army in resisting against the Japanese invasion. The communists may have been taking advantage of the unpopular decision of Chiang Kaishek to refuse to open a united front against Japan and instead focus on eliminating the communists.
3. Source A in the book is a statement made by Chiang Kaishek about the state of the Guomindang. Chiang Kaishek seems to be trying to understand and explain why his organization was failing against the communists. This is valuable in that it is a primary source and it reveals some of the Guomindang's ideology, stating that people should know have spirit and discipline, caring for more than just themselves. Chiang Kaishek seems to believe that the lack of these qualities in the Guomindang was helping the communists win. However, it does not give any specific examples of what "right and wrong" are, and very little context is given to the source. Meanwhile, the excerpt from Mao: The Unknown Story was written by a historian many years after the communists won the Chinese Civil War, with the purpose of teaching what the author saw as the true reason for the communist victory. This is valuable because Jung Chang writes very different interpretations of why the communists won, saying that it was mostly due to foreign aid and the use of fear. Some claims, however, are not supported with any significant evidence.
   

Blog Update

Updated China Chapter 1 questions

HW 3

Why did the Communists, and not the Nationalists, win the Chinese Civil War?

• Communists gained the support of the peasants through land reform (land was given to peasants), propaganda (Long March, images portraying Nationalists negatively and emphasizing the Communists' will to cooperate with each other), and the formation of the Jiangxi Soviet.
• The use of guerrilla warfare kept the Red Army together as a fighting force- the Long March allowed the Communists to regroup, bringing their numbers to about 80,000
• Mistakes by the Nationalists + Chiang Kaishek- Failure of the Extermination Campaigns, Loss of US support by 1949, Failure to gain support of the peasants, Refusal to resist against the Japanese invasion (makes him look bad, opposition takes advantage of this with propaganda, causes him to lose support), Cooperation with northern warlords
  
• Support of the USSR- spies, leadership/advisors
• Mao called for a "United Front" against Japan
  

2/5/10 Notes

• 45 minutes into movie
• Updated Homework 2
• Need questions for part B of in class work 1
  

Class Work 2/4

A.

1. Between Jiangxi and Zunyi, the communists marched along a very straightforward route.
2. After Zunyi, the communists took a much less direct path, dividing the Red Army at some points and making full circles around certain areas before moving forward.
3. Chiang Kaishek and the Guomindang was able to predict the communists' movements and interrupt them when they were marching in straight lines. The communists changed their movements so that they would not be caught so easily.
4. The Red Army may have been trapped and defeated by the Guomindang if they had not changed their tactics.

B.

1. Source A is supported by the fact that less than a quarter of the 87,000 communists who started the Long March finished it. However, the fact that any of them made it to Shaanxi makes the Long March a success for communists to some extent. The countless obstacles that the communists had to overcome, particularly the crossing of the Dadu river, proved the determination of the communists, supporting the claim made in Source B. However, Chiang Kaishek was very successful in reducing the numbers of the communists, even if he did not exterminate them completely.
2. I think that the first view is much more accurate. Many communists were lost in the Long March, but as the source says, it was not a decisive defeat; the communists eventually won the civil war and gained dominance over China, despite the great losses after 1928.
   

Class Notes 2/3/10

Communists worked to gain the support of peasants:

• Land reform
• Ended arranged marriages
• Ended foot binding
• Lowered rents
• Peasant associations
• Propaganda (everybody has a job and is treated equally)
• Class warfare
• Compare to Soviets purging the kulaks (wealthy land owning peasants)
• Jianxi Soviet (1930s)
  

HW 2

Air:

• Airlift (after WWII) - Americans brought 80,000 Nationalist troops to Nanjing, Shanghai, and Beijing to prevent Communists from gaining any more land
• Bomber Aircraft used against communists in extermination campaign
  

Land:

• Guerrilla Warfare - In 1934, Mao led communists on the "Long March," a movement that allowed them to avoid the nationalists and unite the Red Army in Shaanxi
• Nationalist troops chased communists throughout the Long March
  
• Communists took over railways, shipping, mining, forestry, agriculture, led night raids on nationalists
  
• Tanks/armored cars used against communists in extermination campaign

More Long March Notes:

• March starts October 1934 with 87,000 communist troops
  
• Communists are losing, about to be defeated
• Otto Braun's conventional tactics (fighting face-to-face, no guerrilla warfare) are questioned
• Mao replaces Braun, resumes guerrilla tactics
• March ends October 1935 with fewer than 10,000 communist troops
  

HW 1 - upDATEd (I put dates in)

Long Term Causes:

1. Foreign Influence on China- Political, Economic, Religious- In the 1800s and early 1900s, European nations established "spheres of influence" in China, meaning that many areas were heavily influenced by the Western world. Countries like Britain controlled many businesses and began to spread Western religious ideas.
   
2. Rise of Chinese Nationalism- Social, Ideological, Religious- Many Chinese people resisted the influence of foreign nations, believing that China should remain purely Chinese and keep its independence. This led to movements like the Boxer Rebellion in 1900
   
3. Downfall of the Manchu dynasty- Social, Political- The Manchus were seen as being too weak to effectively run China, letting it get overrun by Europeans. The Boxer-Rebellion and other anti-Manchu movements eventually caused a change in power in 1912.

Short Term Causes:

1. May Fourth Movement- Political, Economic- After World War I, China hoped that it would be given back the port of Kiaochow, which had been taken by Germany and then Japan. When China did not regain this territory after the war in the year 1919, its people protested. Reaction to Treaty of Versailles (China didn't like it.) Protests included boycotts against Japanese goods, which likely increased tension between China and Japan leading up to WWII.
   
2. Russian Revolution- Political, Social, Ideological- The Russian Revolution in 1917 helped to start the spread of communism, a social idea that quickly reached China, dividing the Chinese people ideologically
   
3. The New Tide- Political, Social, Ideological- A social movement focused on freedom, modernity, equal rights, and the elimination of old-fashioned ideas. Started in 1916.
4. March to the North- 1926,
5. Poverty in China- China had economic difficulty in 1911, due to nation-wide harvest failures, increased taxes (to support the New Army), the creation of railways, and the use of foreign loans and technical assistance. Helped cause the 1911 Revolution.
   
6. Chinese Communist Party- Started in 1921
7. Fascism- Chaing Kaishek, 1923
   

Class Notes 01/26/10

3 Long-term Causes

• Chinese nationalism
  
• Influence of foreign nations on China (opium, spheres of influence)
• Revolution of 1911
  

2 Political Causes

• Contest for leadership
• Boxer Rebellion
  

1 Social Cause

• Rise of Marxism
  

Other Causes:

• May Fourth movement (political/social: long-term or short-term?)
• Russian Revolution (political/social: short-term)
  

China Chapter 1

A.

• Dynasty: Period of time in which the country is ruled by a royal family
• Manchus: The people who ruled China in 1900
• Unequal Treaties: Japan forced China to sign treaties that gave sea ports and trade privileges to Japan
• Spheres of Influence: Areas in which European nations had economic influence
• Boxers: People who rebelled in 1900, opposing foreigners, Christianity, and to an extent the Manchus. They were called Boxers because they practiced martial arts.

B.

1. The man in the picture was a Boxer.
2. The Boxers were rebelling in order to reduce the influence of foreign cultures on China.
3. The man was probably caught by the Manchus or their supporters, who executed him in public as an example to other revolutionaries.
4. The onlookers in the photograph were probably terrified by the violence, although it is unclear whether they were supporters of the Manchus or the Boxers.
5. The photograph may have been taken for the purpose of showing what would happen to people if they acted violently against the government of China.
   

Paper 1 Practice

1. a. According to Source C, the Geneva Conference failed because it was unable to accomplish anything in terms of disarmament. The source says that this was because of "capitalist countries" pushing for their own agendas, and that they lied to each other by disguising their demands as "pacifistic phrases." The Soviet view was that these nations were trying to increase their own armaments while decreasing the armaments of others, instead of making any real progress towards global disarmament.

1. b. Source E suggests that the Geneva Conference is only going to bring more destruction. This is represented by the image of King Kong, labeled armaments, breaking free of the control of the people who brought him to the conference.

3. Source C is an article from the official newspaper of the Soviet Union discussing the failures of the Disarmament Conference. The purpose of the article was to convey one interpretation of why the conference was unsuccessful. This source is very valuable for the fact that it shows what Russia thought about the events leading up to World War II, exhibiting the tension between communism and capitalism at the time. This may also be a limitation, however, because the Soviet newspaper could be blaming capitalist countries primarily for propaganda purposes, while there may have been other causes for the lack of progress at the conference.
Source D comes from a British writer who is trying to convey her own thoughts about the conference's failures. The excerpt is helpful in that it shows Britain's perspective of the conference and how France and Britain were allies in the events between World War I and World War II. However, Britain might have only blamed Germany and sided with France because of World War I.

Comparing and Contrasting Effects of WWI and WWII

WWI

1. Major peace conference w/ harsh terms
2. Germany paid for much of the damage caused by the war
3. France and Britain become powerful internationally
4. 20 million dead
   

WWII

1. No major peace conference (many smaller ones)
2. USA + Allies paid to rebuild Japan and Germany
3. US and USSR became superpowers
4. 40-50 million dead
   

WWI + WWII

1. Attempts were made for global peace + collective security (League of Nations, United Nations)
   
2. Land taken from Arab nations for mandates (WWI) and Israel (WWII)
   
3. Both created democracies in Germany
   

Effects of World War II

Social Effects

• 50 million dead (20 million from USSR dead, 6 million Poles dead)
• 21 million displaced
• 25 million in USSR homeless
• 10 million ethnic Germans forced to move to West Germany
• Fear and suspicion between the USSR and the USA, Great Britain and France
• Fear of Nuclear Holocaust
• Eastern Europe loses freedom and is "Sovietized" by Russia

Economic Effects

• US and USSR become dominant superpowers, engage in an ideological struggle from 1945-1990 (Communism vs. Capitalism)
  
• US economy strong enough to help rebuild W. Germany and Japan
• We rebuild W. Europe with Marshall Plan funds
• France lost 50% of wealth
• Italy lost 30%
• Western USSR was destroyed
• German cities and factories destroyed
• Japanese cities and industry damaged -US helps rebuild Japan
  
• Japan gives up all territory gained in the last 90 years
• Japan leaves China

Political Effects

• "De-Nazification"
• Nuremberg Trials in 1946
  
• Germany divided
• West Germany occupied by US, GB and
  
• East Germany occupied by USSR 1945 - 1989
• Creation of the United Nations in 1945 (US-led organization: Eleanor Roosevelt had a key role in this), all major countries joined
• USSR tries to spread communism
• United States foreign policy changes (no longer isolationist)
• 1950-1952 Korean War- A tie, N. Korea communist, S. Korea Democratic
  
• 1965-1975 Vietnam War- Communists win
• US adopts "containment" policy, tries to spread democracy and stop communism
• Creation of Israel in 1948 as a homeland for the Jewish people (land taken from Arabs- root of violence and tension between "Western" and "Arab" worlds today)